¹ Two comprehensive texts on Sudanese land law of substantial use to the researcher are Thompson, Cliff F., The Land Law of the Sudan: Cases and Materials, Khartoum, 1965 (3 vols.)Google Scholar; and Mahdi, Saeed Mohamed Ahmed El, Introduction to the Land Law of the Sudan, Khartoum, 1979Google Scholar. An excellent work containing material on land tenure practices respecting agricultural land is Tothill, J. D., ed., Agriculture in the Sudan, London, 1948Google Scholar.

² The Civil Transactions Act, 1984 was drafted by a small committee within the Presidential PalaceGoogle Scholar, and borrowed heavily from the Civil Codes of Jordan, Egypt, and Iraq. These three latter Civil Codes, in turn, borrowed from the Majalla, a codification of the Islamic law of obligations made during the Ottoman Empire in the years 1869–76 based on the rules of the Hanafi school of Islam. See generally, Coulson, N., A History of Islamic Law, 1964, 151–52Google Scholar; Onar, “The Majalla”, in Khadduri, M. & Liebesny, H. (eds) Law in the Middle East, Vol. 1: Origin and Development of Islamic Law, 1955, 292–308Google Scholar; Badr, , “The New Egyptian Civil Code and the Unification of the Laws of the Arab Countries”, (1956) TulaneL. Rev. 30, 299Google Scholar; Jwaideh, , “The New Civil Code of Iraq”, (1953) 22 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 176Google Scholar; Liebesny, , “Impact of Western Law in the Countries of the Near East”, (1953) 22 Geo. Wash. L. Rev., 127Google Scholar; Anderson, , “The Shari'a and Civil Law: The Debt Owed by the New Civil Codes of Egypt and Syria to the Shari'a”, (1954) 1 Islamic Q 29Google Scholar. On the process of the codification of Islamic Law, see Schacht, , “Problems of Modern Islamic Legislation”, (1960) 12 Studia Islamica, 99Google Scholar. Two English translations of the Majalla from the original Turkish are contained in Hooper, C., The Civil Law of Palestine and Trans-Jordan, Jerusalem, 1933Google Scholar, and Tyser, C., Demetriades, D. & Effendi, I., The Majelle, Nicosia, 1901Google Scholar; reprinted Lahore, 1967.

³ Interpretation of Laws and General Clauses Act, 1974, sec. 7(1), 7 Laws of the Sudan 136 (5th ed. 1982)Google Scholar.

⁴ For a discussion of recent legal developments in the Sudan, see Gordon, , “The Islamic Legal Revolution: The Case of Sudan”, (1985) 19 Int'l Law, 793Google Scholar.

The continued retention of shari'a-based legislation in Sudan is controversial as among various Sudanese political parties. The campaign leading up to national elections in Sudan scheduled for April 1986 involved in part a debate regarding whether or not this legislation, particularly the criminal provisions, should be repealed or amended. On this controversy, see Sudanow, 01. 1986, at 8–13Google Scholar.

⁵ Civil Procedure Act, 1983, s.6(2)Google Scholar (promulgated 18 August, 1983). The history of this provision as set forth in earlier legislation is detailed in Gordon, , above n.4, at 801, n.48Google Scholar. See generally, Mustafa, Z., The Common Law in the Sudan: An Account of the “Justice, Equity and Good Conscience” Provision, Oxfordq, 1971Google Scholar.

^5a Judgments (Basic Rules) Act, 1983, s.3Google Scholar (promulgated 28 September, 1983).

⁶ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.3.Google Scholar

^6a Decree no. 5 issued by the Chairman of the Transitional Military Council on or about 9 04, 1985Google Scholar. Soon after the change in government, Sudan's 1973 Constitution was suspended, the national and regional legislative assemblies were dissolved, and the sole legal political party under the 1973 Constitution, the Sudan Socialist Union, was dissolved. On 10 October, 1985, the Transitional Military Council promulgated The Transitional Constitution of the Sudan, 1985 which replaced the 1973 Constitution. Article 133 of the 1985 Constitution states:

“Subject to the provisions of this Constitution, all laws valid immediately before this Constitution took effect shall continue unless repealed or amended by the competent authority.”

Article 3 of the 1985 Constitution provides that the Constitution shall prevail over the provisions of any inconsistent legislation.

⁷ This was the position taken in rulings by certain judges during the last year of the Nimeiri government. For the future, it is unclear whether s.3 of the Judgments (Basic Rules) Act, 1983 will be similarly construed.Google Scholar An English translation of the full text of this latter Act is contained in Gordon, , above n.4, at 814–15Google Scholar.

⁸ Thompson, C., above n.l, vol. 1, 5Google Scholar.

^8a Customary law has played an important role in the evolution of the Sudanese legal system. In Shandag Adam Mem Alia v. Ibrahim Yousif Khamgan, (1973) J., Sudan L. & Rep. 33, 35Google Scholar, the Sudan Supreme Court stated:

“Even though the existence of an alleged custom is proved, the Court may refuse to accord it judicial recognition if it does not conform with the demands of justice or public order.”

The Evidence Act, 1983 (promulgated 6 October, 1983) states at s.17(3) (f) that a court shall take judicial notice of “general Sudanese customs recognized by the courts provided that they are not in contravention of the provisions of Shari'a law.”Google Scholar On the history of customary law in the Sudan, see generally Deng, , “The Future of Customary Law in the Sudan”, (1969) 11 L., Malaya Rev., 268Google Scholar; Thompson, , “The Formative Era of the Law of the Sudan”, (1965) J., Sudan L. & Rep. 474, 477Google Scholar; Rannat, , “The Relationship Between Islamic and Customary Law in the Sudan”, [1960] 4 J. A. L 9Google Scholar. With respect to customary law relating to land, see Mahdi, El, “Some General Principles of Acquisition of Ownership of and Rights Over Land by Customary Prescription in the Sudan”, [20] J.A.L. 79Google Scholar; Howell, P., A Manual of Nuer Law 181–90, Oxford, 1954Google Scholar; O'Fahey, R., State and Society in Dar Fur, 49–68, London, 1980Google Scholar; Guttman, “Land Tenure Among the Azande People of Equatoria Province in the Sudan”, (37) Sudan Notes & Rec. 48. On the role of customary law in Shari'a, see generally Schacht, , “Usui”, in Gibb, H. & Kramers, J. (eds) Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1974, 611, 614–15 par. 8;Google ScholarAwa, El, “The Place of Custom (’Urf) in Islamic Legal Theory”, (1973) 17 Islamic Q. 177Google Scholar; Coulson, , “Muslim Custom and Case-Law”, (1961) 6 Die Welt Des Islams 13 (new ser.);Google ScholarBousquet, , “Islamic Law and Customary Law in French North Africa”, (1950) 32 J. Comp. Legis. & Int'l L. 57 (3d ser.)Google Scholar.

⁹ Noronha, Raymond and Lethem, Francis J., Traditional Land Tenures and Land Use Systems in the Design of Agricultural Projects, Washington, D.C., The World Bank 1983 (StaffWorking Papers, no. 561), 2Google Scholar.

^9a Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.4.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Id., s.l 1(12) and (13)(b).

¹¹ The Survey Department (Organization) Act, 1974, ss.2 and 3(e), 7 Laws of the Sudan 132 (5th ed. 1982)Google Scholar.

¹² The Demarcation and Survey Act, 1905, s.3(1), 1 Laws of the Sudan 19 (5th ed. 1976) (as amended 1982)Google Scholar.

¹³ Id., ss.4, 5(a).

¹⁴ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.529(1).Google Scholar

¹⁵ The Demarcation and Survey Act, 1905, s.7.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Simpson, , “Land Tenure: Some Explanations and Definitions”, (1954) 6 J. African Administration 50, reprinted in Thompson, above, n.l, vol. 1, pp. 82ffGoogle Scholar.

¹⁷ I Laws of the Sudan 403 (5th ed. 1976)Google Scholar. See generally, Mahdi, Saeed M. A. El, A Guide to Land Settlement and Registration, Khartoum, 1971Google Scholar; Miskin, , “Land Registration”, (1950) 31 Sudan Notes & Records 274Google Scholar; Simpson, , “Land Law and Registration in the Sudan”, (1955) 7 J. African Administration 11Google Scholar.

¹⁸ See also, Civil Transactions Act, 1984, ss.558, 559(6), 615(2), 728, 782. Regarding state-owned lands,Google Scholarsee Civil Transactions Act, 1984, ss.559(3), 615(2).Google Scholar

¹⁹ Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, s.4.Google Scholar

²⁰ Id. s.5 (as amended 2 12, 1984).Google Scholar

²¹ Id. s.6.

²² Id s.13, 16.

²³ Id ss,15(2), 19,97.

^23a Id. s.85.

²⁴ Id. s.20 (as amended 2 12, 1984).Google Scholar

²⁵ Id. s.23.

²⁶ Id. s.28. Notwithstanding this section, there are reported judicial decisions providing exceptions. See, e.g., Siddiq Babiker El Kabis v. Hamad MohamedHassan, (1962) J., Sudan L. & Rep. 17Google Scholar.

²⁷ Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, s.27(f), 85(c).Google Scholar See generally, Thompson, , above n.l, vol. 2, pp. 563–64, vol. 3, p. 655Google Scholar. But see, Prescription and Limitation Act, 1928, ss.2 (last par.), 6A (repealed 1984).Google Scholar

²⁸ The use of the word “land” in this provision was defined broadly to include any interest in land including the right of cultivation. See, Unregistered Land Act, 1970, s.2(1) (repealed 1984);Google ScholarLand Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, s.3.Google Scholar

²⁹ The Unregistered Land Act, 1970 (Act no. 23), s.4 (repealed 1984).Google Scholar Exceptions were provided for in cases where a private person could prove his usage of the land “for a long time”, and for cases where the government was satisfied that a person had made “any beneficial use” of the property in question. See, Id., ss.3, 8(4).

³⁰ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.559(3).Google Scholar

³¹ Id., s.693.

³² Id., ss.559, 560.

^32a One feddan equals 1038 acres, or 4200 square metres.

^32b Awad, Mohammed Hashim, “The Evolution of Landownership in the Sudan”, (1971) 25 Middle East Jour., 212, 218Google Scholar.

^32c Mahdi, El, above, n.l, at 95Google Scholar.

³³ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.560.Google Scholar

³⁴ Id., ss.615(2), 651,687(2).

³⁵ See n.26.

³⁶ See n.27. See also, Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.641(1), 642(1), 649–50Google Scholar.

³⁷ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.728.Google Scholar

³⁸ Id., s.782.

³⁹ Id., s.559(1). This provision is consistent with the Qur'an 3: 189Google Scholar which states:

“To God belongeth the Dominion of the heavens and the earth; And God hath power over all things.”

See also, Qur'an 4: 126Google Scholar.

⁴⁰ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.559 (l)–(3).Google Scholar

⁴¹ Id., s.556(l)–(2).

⁴² Miscellaneous Amendments Act, 1405 (promulgated by the Transitional Military Council on 16 07, 1985)Google Scholar. With respect to the problem of the division of authority over land matters, as between the national, regional and local levels of government in the Sudan, see part XIII of this paper.

⁴³ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.519(1)Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Id., s.615(2).

⁴⁵ Id., s.516(l)-(2). A more detailed discussion of the permissible use of private land is contained in part VIII of this paper.

⁴⁶ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, ss.518, 522.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Id., s.528.

⁴⁸ Id., s.523.

⁴⁹ Id., s.532.

⁵⁰ Id., ss.655(2), 676, 683(1). See also, Civil Procedure Act, 1983, 2d Schedule s.101–34;Google Scholar and Fluehr-Lobban, & Hillawi, , “Circulars of the Shari'a Courts in the Sudan,” [27] J.A.L. 79Google Scholar.

⁵¹ Wills and Administration Act, 1928, ss.4–6, 2 Laws of the Sudan 117 (5th ed. 1976)Google Scholar; Civil Transactions Act, 1984, ss.655(3), 679.

⁵² See, generally, Coulson, N., Succession in the Muslim Family, Cambridge, 1971Google Scholar; Pearl, D., A Textbook of Muslim Law, London, 1979, 144ffGoogle Scholar; Vesey-Fitzgerald, S., Muhammadan Law: An Abridgement According to its Various Schools 111 et seq., Oxford 1931, 11ffGoogle Scholar; Anderson, , “Recent Reforms in the Islamic Law of Inheritance”, (1965) 14 Int'l & Comp. L.Q. 349Google Scholar; Makdisi, , “Fixed Shares in Intestate Distribution: A Comparative Analysis of Islamic and American Law”, (1984) Brigham Young Univ. L. Rev. 267Google Scholar.

⁵³ See, Tothill, “The Problem of Land Fractionation”, in Tothill, , ed., above, n.l, at 210ffGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁴ Awad, , above, n.32b, at 227Google Scholar. See also, “Report of the Land Registration Committee,” 14 04, 1929,Google Scholar reprinted in Thompson, , above, n.l, vol. 2 at 399, 419Google Scholar.

^54b Hassan Fadl El Mula v. Zeinab Fadl El Mula, 1956 Sudan Law Jour. & Reports 90Google Scholar; Heirs of Neima Khidir, 1959 Sudan Law Jour. & Reports 53Google Scholar; Heirs of Siddig Ahmed Kambal v. Said Ahmed Kambal, 1962 Sudan Law Jour. & Reports 152Google Scholar.

⁵⁵ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.533(1).Google Scholar See also, s.664 as to disposition of property obtained from a decedent's estate, and s.540(l) regarding land held in family ownership.

⁵⁶ Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, s.30.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, ss.558(1), 819Google Scholar; Interpretation of Laws and General Clauses Act, 1974, s.6(3).Google Scholar

⁵⁸ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.534 (l)–(2).Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Id., s.534(4).

⁶⁰ Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, ss.99–100.Google Scholar See also, Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.534(5), which provides for the appointment of a director to manage the property.Google Scholar

⁶¹ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.536.Google Scholar

⁶² Id., ss.538–42.

⁶³ Civil Procedure Act, 1983, s.135.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.537(2).Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Id., ss.537(l), 678(2).

⁶⁶ Civil Procedure Act, 1983, s.134.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, ss.31–32.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Civil Procedure Act, 1983, ss.137(1)(b).Google Scholar

⁶⁹ See particularly, Civil Transactions Act, 1984, ss.559.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, ss. 16(c), 19AGoogle Scholar.

⁷¹ Land Acquisition Act, 1930, ss.4(1), 31, 2 Laws of the Sudan 239 (5th ed. 1976)Google Scholar. See also, The Acquisition Act, 1970 (Act no. 20).Google Scholar

⁷² Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.517(2).Google ScholarSee also, Permanent Constitution of the Sudan, 1973, art. 34 (suspended 1985);Google ScholarTransitional Constitution, 1985, art. 25.Google Scholar

⁷³ Land Acquisition Act, 1930, s.8.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ Id., s.10.

⁷⁵ Id., s.9.

⁷⁶ Id., s.14.

⁷⁷ Id., s.19.

⁷⁸ Id., s.23.

⁷⁹ Id., s.22.

⁸⁰ Land, Gezira Act, 1927, 2 Laws of the Sudan 42 (5th ed. 1976)Google Scholar; The Rahad Corporation Act, 1972, 6 Laws of the Sudan 231 (5th ed. 1982)Google Scholar; The Western Savannah Development Corporation Act, 1978, 11 Laws of the Sudan 48 (5th ed. 1982)Google Scholar. These schemes are discussed in part XII of this paper.

⁸¹ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.615(2);Google ScholarLand Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, ss. 33–36, 54.Google Scholar

⁸² Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, s.33(a).Google Scholar

⁸³ Id., s.36.

⁸⁴ Id, s.37.

⁸⁵ Id., ss. 34, 54. See, e.g., Land Registration Rules, 1925, s.5, 7 Laws of the Sudan 40 (4th ed. 1955)Google Scholar.

⁸⁶ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.615(2).Google Scholar

⁸⁷ Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, s.28.Google Scholar

⁸⁸ See notes 50–51, supraGoogle Scholar.

⁸⁹ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.679(a).Google Scholar

⁹⁰ Id., s.682(2).

⁹¹ Id., s.683(l).

⁹² Id., s.683(2); Wills and Administration Act, 1928, ss.5–6.Google Scholar

⁹³ Coulson, , Succession in the Muslim Family 235et segGoogle Scholar; Rahman, Tanzil Ur, A Code of Muslim Personal Law, Karachi, Islamic Publishers, 1980, vol. 2, 302–312Google Scholar.

^93a This subject was previously regulated by the Prescription and Limitation Act, 1928, 2 Laws of the Sudan 109 (5th ed. 1976) (repealed 1984)Google Scholar.

⁹⁴ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.555(1).Google Scholar

⁹⁵ Id., s.559.

⁹⁶ Id., ss.560(l) and (4), 568, 572(1).

⁹⁷ Id., s.631(l). See also s.31.

⁹⁸ Id., s.641(l).

⁹⁹ Id., ss.644–45.

¹⁰⁰ Id., ss.641 (2), 642–43.

¹⁰¹ Id., s.649.

¹⁰² Id., ss.560, 651. See text adjacent to notes 95–96, supraGoogle Scholar.

¹⁰³ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.27(2), 651.Google Scholar

^103a Id., s.697(4).

¹⁰⁴ Id., s.650.

¹⁰⁵ Thompson, above, n.l, vol. 2, 563. See, Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, s.27(f)Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁶ This subject was previously regulated by the Pre-Emption Act, 1928, 2 Laws of the Sudan 100 (5th ed. 1976) (repealed 1984)Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁷ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.616.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁸ Id., ss.617–18.

¹⁰⁹ Id., s.620(l).

¹¹⁰ Id, s.626(l)–(2).

¹¹¹ Id., s.623.

¹¹² Thompson, above, n.l, vol. 3, 878Google Scholar.

¹¹³ Mohamed Osman El Mubarak v. Abdel Rahim Salih Saeed, (1963) Sudan Law Jour. & Reports 209, 217Google Scholar; Vesey-Fitzgerald, , above, n.52, at 230–1Google Scholar; Doi, Abdur Rahman I., Shari'ah: The Islamic Law, London, 1984, 341–45Google Scholar.

¹¹⁴ Civil Transactions Act, 1984Google Scholar, s.516(3).

¹¹⁵ Id., s.516(4). But see, s.556, and the Mines and Quarries Act, 1972Google Scholar, and the Petroleum Resources Act, 1972Google Scholar, which vest the ownership of oil and minerals in the government.

¹²⁰ Id., s.560(6). But see part XIII of this paper at notes 360ff.

¹²¹ Id., s.566(l)–(2).

¹²² Id., s.561.

¹²³ Id., s.569(4).

¹²⁴ Id., s.570(l)–(3).

¹²⁵ Id., s.570(5).

¹²⁶ Id., s.560(3).

¹²⁷ Id., ss.573(l),695.

¹²⁸ Id., s.659(a).

¹²⁹ Id., s.569(l).

¹³⁰ Id., s.568.

¹³¹ Id., s.573(4).

¹³¹ Id., s.573(2).

¹³³ Id., ss.573(3), 695(h)(2).

¹³⁴ Id., s.695(f).

¹³⁵ Id., 8.695(d).

¹³⁶ Id., s.572(l).

¹³⁷ Id., s.573(6).

¹³⁸ Id., s.696(a).

¹³⁹ Id., ss.572(3), 696(b). But see s.707(2).

¹⁴⁰ Id., s.570(6).

¹⁴¹ Id., ss.569(l), 697(1).

^141a Id., s.692(2).

^141b Id., s.570(5).

^141c Id., s.615(l).

¹⁴² Id., s.574.

¹⁴³ Id., ss.523, 576.

¹⁴⁴ Id., ss.576(l),584.

¹⁴⁵ Id., s.576(3).

¹⁴⁶ Id., ss.528(2), 588–91.

¹⁴⁷ Id., s.575.

¹⁴⁸ Id., s.581(l).

¹⁴⁹ Id., s.592(l).

¹⁵⁰ Id., s.593.

¹⁵¹ Id., s.592(2).

¹⁵² Nile Pumps Control Act, 1939, 3 Laws ofthe Sudan 2 (5th ed. 1976)Google Scholar. For a discussion of pump schemes operating in the Sudan, see, Tothill, above, n.l, at 611–18Google Scholar.

¹⁵³ Id., s.9. With respect to riparian land rights, see, Civil Transactions Act, 1984, ss.602–05Google Scholar.

¹⁵⁴ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.592(3)Google Scholar.

¹⁵⁵ Id., s.524.

¹⁵⁶ Id., s.560(l).

¹⁵⁷ Id., s.524.

¹⁵⁸ Id., ss.597, 525.

¹⁵⁹ Id., s.594.

¹⁶⁰ Id., s.565(l)(a)–(b).

¹⁶¹ Id., s.565(l)(c)–(d).

¹⁶² Id., s.565(l)(e). But see s.531 regarding the cutting of overhanging branches from adjoining property.

¹⁶³ See, The Central Forests Act, 1932, 2 Laws of the Sudan 299 (5th ed. 1976)Google Scholar; The Provincial Forests Act, 1932, 2 Laws of the Sudan 310 (5th ed. 1976)Google Scholar.

¹⁶⁴ Central Forests Act, 1932, s.9Google Scholar; Provincial Forests Act, 1932, s.6Google Scholar.

¹⁶⁵ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.516(1)Google Scholar.

¹⁶⁶ Id., s.516(2).

¹⁶⁷ Id., ss.322–348. Agricultural leases are discussed in part IX of this paper.

¹⁶⁸ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.569(1), 697(1)Google Scholar.

¹⁶⁹ Id., ss.694, 704(1).

¹⁷⁰ Id., s.560(l).

¹⁷¹ Id., s.608(l).

¹⁷² Id., s.608(2).

¹⁷³ Id., s.610(l).

¹⁷⁴ Id., ss.707(a), 696(a). With respect to the duration of leases, see ss.301–02.

¹⁷⁵ Id., ss.573(2) and (6), 707(c).

¹⁷⁶ Id., ss.570, 572(1).

¹⁷⁷ See notes 101–104 for references to provisions setting forth the length of the period of time for which possession must be maintained after which the grower cannot be evicted.

¹⁷⁸ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.516(4)Google Scholar.

¹⁷⁹ Id., s.556(2).

¹⁸⁰ Id., s.556( 1). It is unclear how this section inter-relates with the Zakat and Taxes Act, 1984, s.17, which refers to a levy on minerals at the rate of 2·5 per cent.Google Scholar See also, Civil Transactions Act, 1984,Google Scholar s.695(a), which purports to give the holder of usufruct rights to all things produced on the land.

¹⁸¹ The Mines and Quarries Act, 1972, s.4, 6 Laws of the Sudan 261 (5th ed. 1982)Google Scholar.

¹⁸² Id., s. 11.

¹⁸³ Above, n.57.

¹⁸⁴ As defined in the Petroleum Resources Act, 1972, s.3, 6 Laws of the Sudan 250 (5th ed. 1982)Google Scholar.

¹⁸⁵ Id., s.4.

¹⁸⁶ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.556. But see s.695(a)Google Scholar.

¹⁸⁷ Id., s.295.

¹⁸⁸ Compare the definition of “usufruct” in s.693.

¹⁸⁹ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.296(4)Google Scholar.

¹⁹⁰ Id., s.558(1); Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, s.48Google Scholar.

¹⁹¹ Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, s.52(1)Google Scholar. Under s.52(2) of this 1925 ActGoogle Scholar, the land register may order that any lease be registered.

¹⁹² Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.298(1)Google Scholar.

¹⁹³ See, The Rent Restriction Act, 1953, 4 Laws of the Sudan 25 (5th ed. 1976) (repealed 1982)Google Scholar; The Rent Restriction Act, 1982, Sudan Gazette Legislative Supp. no. 1304 (28 09, 1982) (repealed 1984)Google Scholar. See generally, Thompson, , “The Sudan Law of Landlord and Tenant and the Judicial Interpretation of the Rent Restriction Ordinance, 1953”, (1962) Sudan L.J. & Rep. 411Google Scholar; Mahdi, El and Thompson, , “Report of Law Reform of the Sudan Law of Landlord and Tenant”, (1970) J, Sudan L.. & Rep. 108Google Scholar.

¹⁹⁴ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.299 (as amended 12 1985)Google Scholar. Under the Civil Transactions (Amendment) Act, 1406, promulgated by the Transitional Military Council on 4 December 1985, after consultations with the Council of Ministers, see Provisional Constitution, 1985 art. 36, 52, ss.298–300 of the C.T.A. were amendedGoogle Scholar.

¹⁹⁵ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.300(1) (as amended 12 1985)Google Scholar.

¹⁹⁶ Under Id., s.300(3) (as amended 12 1985)Google Scholar, the increase or decrease in rental pursuant to court order is to take effect only from the date of the court–s judgment without retroactive effect.

¹⁹⁷ Id., s.298(7) (as amended 12 1985)Google Scholar.

¹⁹⁸ Id., s.300(2) (as amended 12 1985)Google Scholar.

¹⁹⁹ Id., s.298(3).

²⁰⁰ Id., s.316(3).

¹⁹¹ Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, s.52(1).Google Scholar Under s.52(2) of this 1925 Act, the land register may order that any lease be registered.

¹⁹² Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.298(1).Google Scholar

¹⁹³ See, The Rent Restriction Act, 1953, 4 Laws of the Sudan 25 (5th ed. 1976) (repealed 1982)Google Scholar; The Rent Restriction Act, 1982, Sudan Gazette Legislative Supp. ho. 1304 (28 09, 1982) (repealed 1984)Google Scholar. See generally, Thompson, , “The Sudan Law of Landlord and Tenant and the Judicial Interpretation of the Rent Restriction Ordinance, 1953”, (1962) Sudan, L.J. & Rep. 411Google Scholar; Mahdi, El and Thompson, , “Report of Law Reform of the Sudan Law of Landlord and Tenant”, (1970) Sudan, L.J. & Rep. 108Google Scholar.

¹⁹⁴ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.299 (as amended 12 1985)Google Scholar. Under the Civil Transactions (Amendment) Act, 1406, promulgated by the Transitional Military Council on 4 December 1985, after consultations with the Council of Ministers, see Provisional Constitution, 1985 art. 36, 52, ss.298–300 of the C.T.A. were amended.

¹⁹⁵ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.300(1) (as amended 12 1985)Google Scholar.

¹⁹⁶ Under Id., s.300(3) (as amended 12 1985)Google Scholar, the increase or decrease in rental pursuant to court order is to take effect only from the date of the court–s judgment without retroactive effect.

¹⁹⁷ Id., s.298(7) (as amended 12 1985)Google Scholar.

¹⁹⁸ Id., s.300(2) (as amended 12 1985)Google Scholar.

¹⁹⁹ Id., s.298(3).

²⁰⁰ Id., s.316(3).

²⁰¹ Id., s.317(1).

²⁰² Id., s.301(1).

²⁰³ Id., s.301(2).

²⁰⁴ Id., s.301(3).

²⁰⁵ Id., s.301(4)–(5).

²⁰⁶ Id., s.304.

²⁰⁷ Id., s.321(1).

²⁰⁸ Id., s.321(4).

²⁰⁹ Id., s.321(5).

²¹⁰ Id., s.316(4).

²¹¹ Id., s.317.

^211a Id., s.311.

²¹² Id., s.319(3)–(4).

²¹³ Id., ss.309(1), 312(1), 327(b).

²¹⁴ Id., s.312(2).

²¹⁵ Id., ss.310, 312(5).

²¹⁶ Id., s.315(3)–(4).

²¹⁷ Id., s.315(1).

²¹⁸ Id., ss.315(5), 327(a).

²¹⁹ Id., s.298.

²²⁰ Id., ss.315(6), 327(c), 324(2).

²²¹ Id., s.319(1).

²²² Id., s.320(1)–(2).

²²³ Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, s.56.Google Scholar

²²⁴ See also, Civil Transactions Act, 1984, ss.703–06;Google Scholar and the sections of this paper in part VIII elating to usufruct and the cultivation of crops.

²²⁵ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.323(1).Google Scholar

²²⁶ Id., s.323(2)(b).

²²⁷ Id., ss.326, 697. But see ss.319(3)–(4).

²²⁸ Id., s.328(1).

²²⁹ Id., s.328(2).

²³⁰ Id., s.328(3). Provisions relating to insurance are contained in the Civil Transactions Act, 1984, ss.475–83.Google Scholar See also, Insurers (Control) Act, 1960, 4 Laws of the Sudan 304 (5th ed. 1976).Google Scholar See generally, Siddiqi, M. N., Insurance in an Islamic Economy, Leicester, 1985;Google ScholarMuslehuddin, M., Insurance and Islamic Law, New Delhi, 1969;Google ScholarRahman, Afzalur, Economic Doctrines of Islam: Banking and Insurance, London, 1979.Google Scholar

²³¹ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.329, 330(2), 331(1).Google Scholar

²³² Id., s.330(4).

²³³ Id., s.330(1)(b).

²³⁴ Id., s.331(4).

²³⁵ Id., s.332.

²³⁶ Id., s.333(2).

²³⁷ Id., s.333(1).

²³⁸ Id., s.333(3).

²³⁹ Id., s.334.

²⁴⁰ Id., s.335.

²⁴¹ Id., s.337.

²⁴² Id., s.340(1).

²⁴³ Id., s.341.

²⁴⁴ Id., s.343.

²⁴⁵ Id., s.344.

²⁴⁶ Id., s.345.

²⁴⁷ Id., s.346.

²⁴⁸ Id., s.348.

²⁴⁹ Id., s.316(4).

²⁵⁰ Id., s.334.

²⁵¹ Id., s.328(2).

²⁵² See the “Explanatory Note” issued by the Office of the Legal Secretary at the time of the promulgation of the Agricultural Tenants Protection Act, 1950, which notes the objectives referred to in the text.

²⁵³ See generally, Wilmington, , “Aspects of Moneylending in Northern Sudan”, (9) Middle East Jour. 139 (1955);Google ScholarLees, Francis A. and Brooks, Hugh C., The Economic and Political Development of the Sudan, London, 1977, 94–96.Google Scholar

²⁵⁴ The legislation referred to in n.255 applies to the Gezira Scheme, the Gash Delta in Kassala Province, the Tokar Delta, and some 348 smaller schemes in the areas of Dueim, Kosti, Fung, Sennar, Shendi, and the Northern Sudan (as of 1976). The names and locations of these 348 schemes are listed in a schedule to the Agricultural Tenant's Protection Act, 1950, 3 Laws of the Sudan 412 (5th ed. 1976).Google Scholar

²⁵⁵ Agricultural Tenant's Protection Act, 1950, s.4;Google ScholarTokar Delta (Tenants Protection) Act, 1943, s.3,3 Laws of the Sudan 330 (5th ed. 1976);Google ScholarThe Gezira Land Act, 1927, s. 13,3 Laws of the Sudan 42 (5th ed. 1976);Google ScholarThe Gash Delta Tenants Act, 1928, s.4, 2 Laws of the Sudan 141 (5th ed. 1976).Google Scholar

²⁵⁶ Id.

²⁵⁷ See generally, Vesey-Fitzgerald, , above, n.52, at 206–24;Google ScholarAnderson, Norman, Law Reform in the Muslim World, London, 1976, 162–69;Google ScholarRahman, Tanzil Ur, above, n.93, at 101–73;Google ScholarAnderson, , “Waqfs in East Africa”, [3]J.A.L. 152;Google Scholar Fratcher, “The Islamic Wakf”, (36) Missouri Law Rev. 153:Anon., “Waqf”, (1914) (4) Moslem World 173.Google Scholar

²⁵⁸ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.709(1).Google Scholar

²⁵⁹ Id., s.709(2).

²⁶⁰ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.710.Google Scholar

²⁶¹ Id., s.712, 717. With respect to charitable trusts not governed by Islamic law, see The Charitable Trusts Act, 1971, 6 Laws of the Sudan 47 (5th ed. 1982).Google Scholar

^261a Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.725;Google Scholar The Religious Affairs and Wakfs Act, 1980, s.7, 11 Laws of the Sudan 136 (5th ed. 1982).Google Scholar

²⁶² Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.712.Google Scholar

²⁶³ Id., s.711.

²⁶⁴ Id., s.714. But see, The Islamic Charitable (Wakf) Trusts Act, 1970Google Scholar (Act no. 116, amended byRepublican Order no. 48 of 1972), s.7.

²⁶⁵ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.726.Google Scholar

²⁶⁶ Islamic Charitable (Waqf) Trusts Act, 1970, s.5.Google Scholar

²⁶⁷ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.713.Google Scholar

²⁶⁸ W., s.556(3).

²⁶⁹ Id., s.623(1).

²⁷⁰ Id., s.302, 303, 349–58.

²⁷¹ Id., s.727 733(3). See generally, Mahdi, El, above, n.1, at 200ff.Google Scholar

^271a Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.735(1).Google Scholar

²⁷² Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.729–30, 733(1).Google Scholar

²⁷³ Id., s.748.

²⁷⁴ Id., s.759(1).

²⁷⁵ Id., s.728; Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, s.60.Google Scholar

²⁷⁶ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.747, 749, 750, 752.Google Scholar

²⁷⁷ Id., s.739(2).

²⁷⁸ Id., s.759(3).

²⁷⁹ Civil Procedure Act, 1983, s.122–23.Google Scholar

²⁸⁰ Id., s.124; Civil Transactions Act, 1984, ss.744(1), 750(1), 754(2), 756(1).Google Scholar

²⁸¹ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.745.Google Scholar

²⁸² Civil Procedure Act, 1983, s.123, 127.Google Scholar

²⁸³ Id., s. 124–33.

²⁸⁴ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.281.Google Scholar

²⁸⁵ Civil Procedure Act, 1983, s.110;Google Scholar Civil Circular no. 40 (issued by the Chief Justice of the Sudan Supreme Court on 5 January 1985).

²⁸⁶ Compare The Civil Procedure Act, 1983, ss.121(1), 128(1), 131(1)Google Scholar, with the same sections in the now-repealed Civil Procedure Act, 1974.Google Scholar

²⁸⁷ Qur'an 2: 275–80, 3:130, 4:161, 30: 39.Google Scholar

²⁸⁸ Ali, A. Yusuf, The Holy Qur'an: Text, Translation and Commentary, Leicester, (3d ed.) 1975, 1062 n.3552.Google Scholar

²⁸⁹ See, e.g., Siddiqi, Muhammad N., Banking Without Interest, Leicester, 1983;Google ScholarSiddiqi, Muhammad N., Partnership and Profit-Sharing in Islamic Law, Leicester, 1985.Google Scholar

²⁹⁰ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.766, 770.Google Scholar

²⁹¹ Id., s.768(1).

²⁹² Id., ss.767(3), 768(3).

²⁹³ Id., s.777(1).

²⁹⁴ Id., s.779(1),(3).

^294a Id., s.786–87.

²⁹⁵ Id., s.779(6).

²⁹⁶ Id., s.782.

²⁹⁷ See also, Gash Delta Tenants Act, 1928;Google Scholar and Tokar Delta Tenants Act, 1943Google Scholar, as discussed in art IX of this paper with respect to tenant protection legislation.

²⁹⁸ Tothill, , above, n.l, at 598.Google Scholar

²⁹⁹ Id., at p. 600.

³⁰⁰ Holt, P. M. and Daly, M. W., The History of the Sudan, London, (3d ed.) 1979, 139.Google Scholar

³⁰¹ This notice of 15 03, 1920 is reprinted in 1 Laws of the Sudan 542 (rev. ed. 1927).Google Scholar

³⁰² Gezira Land Ordinance, 1921, 1 Laws of the Sudan 537 (rev. ed. 1927) (repealed 1927).Google Scholar See also, The Gezira Land (Amendment) Ordinance, 1923, 2 Laws of the Sudan 618 (rev. ed. 1927) (repealed 1927).Google Scholar

³⁰³ Board, Sudan Gezira, The Gezira Scheme: Past and Present, Barakat, 1977, 8–9.Google Scholar See generally, Sudanow, 03, 1980, 33–46;Google Scholar January, 1983, 38–39; February, 1985, 15–16.

³⁰⁴ Some details of this arrangement are set forth in Macmichael, Harold, The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, London, 1934, 189–96.Google Scholar

³⁰⁵ The operations of the Sudan Gezira Board were originally set forth in the Ordinance, Gezira Scheme, 1950, 7 Laws of the Sudan 119 (4th ed. 1955)Google Scholar, repealed and replaced by the Gezira Scheme Act, 1960, 4 Laws of the Sudan 260 (5th ed. 1976) (repealed June 1984).Google Scholar

³⁰⁶ The Gezira Scheme Act, 1984, s.11Google Scholar (passed by the People's Assembly on 15 May, 1984, and approved by President Nimeiri on 5 June, 1984). See generally, Beer, “The Social and Administrative Effects of Large-Scale Planned Agricultural Development”, (1953) 5 J. African Administration 112.

³⁰⁷ The Gezira Scheme Act, 1984, s.25fr.Google Scholar

³⁰⁸ Id., schedule II.

³⁰⁹ Gezira Scheme Act, 1960, schedule III and IV (repealed 1984).Google Scholar

³¹⁰ Id., s.28 and schedule IV (repealed 1984)Google Scholar.

³¹¹ The Gezira Land Act, 1927, 2 Laws of the Sudan 42 (5th ed. 1976)Google Scholar.

³¹² Id., s.8(4).

³¹³ Id., s.8(1)and(2).

^313a Id., s.9. This section also provides for compensation for any buildings acquired by the government, and for timber or for damage to crops standing on the land at the time when possession is taken.

^313b The Gezira Land Ordinance, 1921, s.8, 1 Laws of the Sudan 537 (rev. ed. 1927) (repealed 1927)Google Scholar.

³¹⁴ Gezira Land Act, 1927, s.11.Google Scholar

³¹⁵ Tothill,.supra n.l, at771.Google Scholar

³¹⁶ Gezira Land Act, 1927, s.14.Google Scholar

³¹⁷ See part IX(d) of this paper relating to tenant protection legislation.

³¹⁸ Gezira Land Act, 1927, s.16.Google Scholar

³¹⁹ See part V of this paper relating to land registration.

³²⁰ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.559.Google Scholar

³²¹ Gezira Scheme Act, 1984, s.18.Google Scholar

³²² Waterbury, John, Hydropolitics of the Nile Valley, Syracuse, 1979, 197.Google Scholar

³²³ Holt, and Daly, , above, n.300, 211.Google Scholar

³²⁴ Lees, and Brooks, , above, n.253, 49 and 151 n.11.Google Scholar

³²⁵ 6 Laws of the Sudan 231 (5th ed. 1982).Google Scholar

³²⁶ Rahad Corporation Act, 1972, s.4.Google Scholar

³²⁷ Id.

³²⁸ Land Acquisition Act, 1930, 2 Laws of the Sudan 239 (5th ed. 1976)Google Scholar, discussed in part VH(a) of this paper.

³²⁹ Rahad Corporation Act, 1972, s.9(2)–(3).Google ScholarThis Act refers to the President of the Republic, however Decree no. 5, 1405 (issued on or about 9 04, 1985)Google Scholar states that all references in legislation to the powers of the President shall be read to mean the Transitional Military Council. Decree no. 5 were superseded by the Sudanese Laws Coordination Act, 1406, s.3, 5(1) (promulgated 8 12, 1985).Google Scholar

³³⁰ Rahad Corporation Act, 1972, s.16.Google Scholar

³³¹ Id., s.17.

³³² Id., s.18(1).

³³³ Id.

³³⁴ Id., s.18(2).

³³⁵ Id., s.34.

³³⁶ Id., s.35–36.

³³⁷ Id., s.37(2).

³³⁸ The Western Savannah Development Corporation Act, 1978, 11 Laws of the Sudan 48 (5th ed. 1982)Google Scholar.

³³⁹ Id., s.4.

³⁴⁰ Id., s.5(4), 10(9).

³⁴¹ Id., s.5(9).

³⁴² Id., see note 329.

³⁴³ Western Savannah Development Corporation Act, 1978, s.5(9)Google Scholar. See note 328.

³⁴⁴ Id., s.10(9).

³⁴⁵ Id., s.10(ll).

³⁴⁶ Id., s.22–27.

³⁴⁷ Id., s.31.

³⁴⁸ This legislation includes: The Approved Enterprises (Concessions) Act, 1956 (1956 Act no. 8) (repealed 1967);Google ScholarThe Organisation and Promotion of Industrial Investment Act, 1967 (1967 Act no. 55) (repealed 1972);Google ScholarThe Development and Promotion of Industrial Investment Act, 1972 (1972 Act no. 58) (repealed 1974);Google ScholarThe Development and Promotion of Agricultural Investment Act, 1976 (1976 Act no. 19) (repealed 1981).Google Scholar This and other investment promotion legislation is outlined in Gordon, C. N., A Survey of Sudanese Economic Legislation: Consistency or Conflict? Univ. of Khartoum Development Studies and Research Center, Seminar paper no. 57 (1984), 9–19Google Scholar. See generally, Fath, Abdallah, El RahmanSheikh, El, The Legal Regime of Foreign Private Investment in the Sudan and Saudi Arabia, Salacuse, “The Law of Foreign Investment in the Sudan”, (1979) 1 Khartoum Law Review 27Google Scholar.

³⁴⁹ The Encouragement of Investment Act, 1981, 11 Laws of the Sudan 225 (5th ed. 1982) (1980 Provisional Order no. 17, confirmed as 1981 Act no. 20)Google Scholar.

³⁵⁰ Id., s.5(1).

³⁵¹ Id., s.6.

³⁵² Id., ss.9–10, 12.

³⁵³ Id., s.11.

³⁵⁴ Id., s.13.

³⁵⁵ Id., s.14.

³⁵⁶ Id., s. 18(2). For other restrictions on projects granted investment concessions, see ss. 18,21, and 23 of the 1981 ActGoogle Scholar.

³⁵⁷ Id., s.19.

³⁵⁸ Id., s.20.

³⁵⁹ Id., s.25–31.

³⁶⁰ Civil Transactions Act, 1984, ss.560(6), 561, 566, 569(4)Google Scholar. See parts V and VIII(a) of this paper respecting this matter.

³⁶¹ 11 Laws of the Sudan 158 (5th ed. 1982)Google Scholar.

³⁶² The writer is unclear as to the current status of regional government in the southern Sudan. Prior to June 1983, the southern Sudan constituted one region governed by the Southern Provinces Regional Self-Governmental Act, 1972, 6 Laws of the Sudan 213 (5th ed. 1982)Google Scholar, and the High Executive Council and the People's Regional Assembly Act, 1981, 11 Laws of the Sudan 366 (5th ed. 1982)Google Scholar. In June 1983, however, former President Nimeiri issued Presidential Order no. 1, 1983, which divided the southern Sudan into three regions: Equatoria, Bahr el Ghazal, and Upper Nile. (Pres. Order no. 1,1983, is reprinted in the Sudan Gazette, Legislative Supplement no. 1317, dated 10 June, 1983). In April 1985, the Transitional Military Council in its Decree no. 14 abrogated Pres. Order no. 1, 1983. The High Executive Council and the People's Regional Assembly Act, 1981 was retroactively repealed effective 25 April, 1985 as a result of the Sudanese Laws Coordination Act, 1406, s.1, 2(5) (promulgated 8 12, 1985 by the Transitional Military Council)Google Scholar. A Transitional High Executive Council has been appointed to govern the former three regions in the southern Sudan, but its authority and powers are as yet unclear. Moreover, as of December 1985, the Transitional High Executive Council had apparently not yet undertaken its duties in the southern Sudan. See Sudanow 12 1985 at 15Google Scholar. The Transitional Constitution, 1985, art. 16(2)Google Scholar provides that the southern Sudan is to be governed in accord with the Southern Provinces Regional Self-Government Act, 1972. In certain areas of the South, however, a civil war is being fought between the Sudan government military and the rebel forces of the Sudan People's Liberation Army. As of late 1985, limited negotiations between the two sides were proceeding in an attempt to resolve the dispute. The north-south dispute within the Sudan dates back to the period preceding Sudanese independence. See generally Beshir, Mohamed Omer, The Southern Sudan: Background to Conflict, 1968Google Scholar.

³⁶³ Regional Government Act, 1980, s.6 (as amended by the Miscellaneous Amendments Act, 1405, issued by the Transitional Military Council on 16 07, 1985)Google Scholar. The National Capital Act, 1983, and the People's Local Government Act, 1981 were similarly amended.

³⁶⁴ Regional Government Act, 1980, s.8(1) (deleted 1985)Google Scholar.

³⁶⁵ Id., s.8(h) and (i).

³⁶⁶ Id f., s. 86(1)(d).

³⁶⁷ Id., s. 86(2).

³⁶⁸ See note 363, supra.

³⁶⁹ In undertaking such research, the terms of “The Amendments (Consequential to the Making of the Decentralization Laws) Act, 1982” (promulgated by former President Nimeiri on I 07, 1982) must be consideredGoogle Scholar. This Act amended 78 statutes with regard to die assignment of authority within the Sudanese government to undertake various functions. See also, Sudanese, Laws Coordination Act, 1406 (promulgated 8 12, 1985)Google Scholar.