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THE UNACCOUNTABLE CENSUS: COLONIAL ENUMERATION AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR THE SOMALI PEOPLE OF KENYA*
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 01 October 2015
Abstract
In 2010, the Kenyan government annulled national census results due to concerns that Somalis in the country had been over-counted. This article traces the genesis of this recent demographic dispute, which held important implications for the distribution of political power. It shows that African leaders inherited long-standing practices laid down by the colonial state, which was unable to obtain a reliable count of the number of people in Kenya or render its Somali subjects into a countable, traceable population. In regions where expansive Somali networks had long predated British rule, colonial authorities only loosely enforced the concept of a permanent population. By yielding to this reality, colonial officials developed governance techniques that should not be mistakenly portrayed as state ‘failures’. These policies call into question the applicability of James C. Scott's concept of ‘legibility’ to Kenya. They also suggest that recent demographic controversies cannot be reductively blamed on ‘illegal’ immigration.
- Type
- The Limits of Power over People in the Horn of Africa
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- Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015
Footnotes
I would like to extend my gratitude to Richard Ambani and the rest of the staff at the Kenya National Archives as well as Hassan Kochore, Hassan Ibrahim, Abdi Billow Ibrahim, and Ibrahim Abdikarim, who helped at different stages of my fieldwork, in addition to the many people in Kenya who generously shared aspects of their lives with me. Thanks are also due to Dr Alden Young, Dr Mathew Barton, Dr Timothy Parsons, Alice Brown, Pete Tridish, and the three anonymous readers at The Journal of African History, who read early drafts of this article. Stanford University, the Mellon Foundation, and the Lauder Institute at the University of Pennsylvania generously supported my writing and research. Author's email: [email protected]
References
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5 The Colony and Protectorate of Kenya was technically known as the East Africa Protectorate prior to 1920.
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7 Ibid.
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20 See M. Jerven, Poor Numbers: How We Are Misled by African Development Statistics and What to Do about It (Ithaca, NY, 2013), 1–7. Morten Jerven's work, which calls into question indicators such as GDP, has sparked a reevaluation among economic historians of the uses and misuses of statistical data.
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24 L. Cassanelli, ‘The opportunistic economies of the Kenya-Somali borderland in historical perspective’, in D. Feyissa and M. Virgil Höhne (eds.), Borders & Borderlands As Resources in the Horn of Africa (Woodbridge, Suffolk, 2010), 133–150.
25 Some Somali traders also immigrated from Kismayo, a port city in southern Somalia.
26 ‘Clan’ should be understood as an imprecise label. The term is defined relationally and what it means in any given context varies. It is also likely that members of other clans who immigrated to Kenya ultimately came to identify as Isaaq or Harti.
27 Interview with Farah Mohamed Awad, Nairobi, 12 Oct. 2010; interview with Hussein Nuur, Nairobi, 14 Oct. 2010; Turton, E. R., ‘The Isaq Somali diaspora and poll-tax agitation in Kenya, 1936–1941’, African Affairs, 73:292 (1974), 325–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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32 For more on ‘hybrid’ forms of governance on the borderlands of colonial states, see A. Walraet, ‘State-making and emerging complexes of power and accumulation in the Southern Sudan-Kenyan border area: the rise of a thriving cross-border business network’, in C. Vaughan, M. Schomerus, and L. de Vries (eds.), The Borderlands of South Sudan: Authority and Identity in Contemporary and Historical Perspectives (New York, 2013), 173–92.
33 KNA PC NFD 1/5/2, F. G. Jennings, ‘Wajir District annual report’, 1930; Schlee, G., ‘Territorializing ethnicity: the imposition of a model of statehood on pastoralists in Northern Kenya and Southern Ethiopia’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 36:5 (2013), 860CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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35 Interview with Ali Hassan, Nairobi, 3 Nov. 2010; KNA PC/NFD/1/5/2, F. G. Jennings, ‘Wajir annual report’, 1932.
36 KNA PC NFD 1/5/2, F. G. Jennings, ‘Wajir annual report’, 1932.
37 KNA PC NFD 1/5/2, ‘Wajir annual report’, 1933.
38 Ibid. 5.
39 Herbst, States, 3.
40 KNA PC NFD 1/5/2, ‘Annual report for the year 1934, Wajir District, NFD’, 1–5, 15.
41 M. Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism (Princeton, NJ, 1996), 16–21.
42 Sir Richard Burton helped to popularize this image of the Somalis in the mid-nineteenth century. R. F. Burton, ‘The Somal, their origin and peculiarities’, in I. Burton (ed.), First Footsteps in East Africa or, An Exploration of Harar, Two Volumes Bound as One, vol. I (New York, 1987 [orig. pub. 1856]), 70–5.
43 KNA PC NFD 4/1/6, ‘Somali Exemption Ordinance 1919 and the Somali exemption rules 1919’, letter from Chief Native Commissioner to all Provincial Commissioners, 2 Feb. 1920; interview with Zaynab Sharif, Nairobi, 13 Jan. 2011; interview with Hassan Ahmed Warsame, Nairobi, 11 Oct. 2010.
44 KNA PC Coast 1/3/162, ‘Re: status of Somalis’, letter from H. W. B. Blackall, Ag. Crown Council to Chief Native Commissioner, 3 Apr. 1920; The National Archives of the UK (TNA) CO 533/402/6, letter from Edward Grigg, Governor of Kenya Colony and Protectorate to Lord Passfield, Secretary of State for the Colonies, 15 Sept. 1930; TNA CO 533/425/7, ‘Re: hospital accommodation-native civil hospital’, letter from representatives of the Isaak Sheriff Community, Arabs to Governor of Kenya, 4 May 1932; KNA AG 39/120, letter from Attorney General to Colonial Secretary, 31 May 1934.
45 TNA CO 533/402/6, letter from H. Kittermaster to Lord Passfield, Secretary of State for the Colonies, 10 Sept. 1930.
46 It is worth noting, however, that colonial officials often struggled to give their subjects singular and unambiguous ethnic labels. See Parsons, T., ‘Being Kikuyu in Meru: challenging the tribal geography of colonial Kenya’, The Journal of African History, 53:1 (2012), 65–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar, doi: 10.1017/S0021853712000023.
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53 KNA AG 39/120, letter from E. J. A. Musa, President, British Shariff Ishak Community of Kenya Colony to Colonial Secretary.
54 KNA PC SP 6/1/2, ‘Status of Somalis in Kenya: rate of payment under Non-Native Poll Tax Ordinance’, letter from A. de V. Wade, Colonial Secretary to Secretariat, 26 Apr. 1938.
55 KNA AG 39/120, ‘Note on the status and control of Somalis in Kenya Colony in time of war’, letter from P. Wyn Harris, Officer-in-Charge of Native Intelligence, 24 Oct. 1940.
56 KNA AG 39/120, ‘Objects of the Somali Registration Bill’.
57 KNA AG 39/120, letter from G. Reece to G. M. Rennie, Chief Secretary, 16 Jan. 1940.
58 A concern that no doubt grew as increasing numbers of Somali soldiers began fighting in the Second World War on behalf of the British Empire. To preempt accusations of racial discrimination, the governor of Kenya instead implemented a far more limited system of registration for ‘non-natives’ residing in the NFD. KNA AG 39/120, ‘Government notice No. 506: The defence (Northern Frontier District) regulations’, in Kenya, The Official Gazette of the Colony and Protectorate of Kenya (Supplement No. 23) 43:24 (Nairobi, 3 June 1941), 169.
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60 The Managing Committee of the Shariff Ishakian Community, Memorandum of the Population of The Shariff Ishakians and Somalies in East Africa (Nairobi, Jan. 1940), courtesy of Dr Tabea Scharrer.
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64 For more on the history of postwar development projects in Africa, see F. Cooper, ‘Modernizing bureaucrats, backward Africans, and the development concept’, in F. Cooper and R. Packard (eds.), International Development and the Social Sciences: Essays on the History and Politics of Knowledge (Berkeley, CA, 1997), 64–92.
65 KNA VQ 1/21, ‘The position of Alien Somalis in Kenya Colony’, letter from the Secretariat circulated to all members of Executive Council, 25 Apr. 1945.
66 KNA DC ISO 3/6/26, ‘Crown Lands Ordinance’, letter from G. Reece, Officer-in-Charge, Northern Frontier District to Attorney General, 11 May 1939.
67 KNA DC ISO 3/6/26, ‘Alien Somali settlement scheme’, letter from G. Reece, Officer-in-Charge, Northern Frontier District to Chief Secretary, 12 Mar. 1940, 6.
68 KNA DC ISO 3/6/26, ‘Alien Somalis’, letter from T. G. Askwith, District Commissioner, Isiolo District to the Officer-in-Charge, Northern Frontier District, 17 June 1942.
69 KNA DC ISO 3/6/26, ‘Somali settlement’, letter from T. G. Askwith, District Commissioner, Isiolo District to Officer-in-Charge, Northern Frontier District, 16 Apr. 1943.
70 KNA PC NFD 5/5/1, D. C. Edwards, Senior Agricultural Officer (Pasture Research), 20 Nov. 1943.
71 KNA DC MDA 5/1, G. Reece, ‘Control of grazing areas’, 23 July 1945.
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75 KNA DC WAJ 2/1/4, ‘Chief's Meeting’, 4 Jan. 1949; KNA DC WAJ 2/1/4, ‘Meeting of Chiefs’, 24 Dec. 1949; interview with Abdi Salat Abdille, Kotulo, 1 June 2011; interview with Saman Ali Aden and Abbas Aden Amin Osman, Wajir, 6 Apr. 2011; Schlee, ‘Territorializing’, 859.
76 KNA DC WAJ 2/1/4, ‘Minutes of Chiefs’ and Headmen's Meeting Held at Wajir’, 25 Jan. 1948.
77 As Andrew S. Mathews has shown of Mexico, ‘official knowledge’ rarely ‘arises from the imposition of legibility’, but is more often ‘the relatively fragile product of negotiations between officials and their audiences in meeting halls and offices’. A. S. Mathews, Instituting Nature: Authority, Expertise, and Power in Mexican Forests (Cambridge, MA, 2011), 15.
78 As Mohammed Farah notes, ‘no clan boundary, no matter how well-adjudged, could be said to contain all that was necessary for the needs of the livestock’. M. I. Farah, From Ethnic Response to Clan Identity: A Study of State Penetration Among the Somali Nomadic Pastoral Society of Northeastern Kenya (Uppsala, 1993), 133.
79 KNA PC NFD 1/1/10, ‘Northern Frontier Province annual report, 1951’, 2.
80 M. I. Farah, From Ethnic Response to Clan Identity: A Study of State Penetration Among the Somali Nomadic Pastoral Society of Northeastern Kenya (Uppsala, 1993), 133.
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83 KNA PC NGO 1/1/18, letter from R. G. Turnbull, Provincial Commissioner, Northern Province to E. A. Sweatman, Officer-in-Charge, Maasai, 24 Nov. 1952.
84 Ibid.
85 KNA PC NGO 1/1/18, letter from Ag. Secretary for African Affairs to Provincial Commissioners of Nyanza, Coast, Rift Valley, Southern, and Central Provinces and Officer-in-Charge of Nairobi Extra-Provincial District, 18 June 1956.
86 KNA DC MUR 3/1/21, ‘The Somali Census in Kenya Colony’, letter from Officer-in-Charge of Somali Census to Ag. Provincial Commissioner, Central Province, 28 Nov. 1956.
87 Between 1957 and 1959, Somali political associations petitioned the government to give Somalis outside of the NFD employment opportunities as well as their own member in the Legislative Council. There were approximately 8,000 Somalis living outside of the NFD at this time. (Somali veterans of the Second World War had augmented their numbers). KNA CS 28/2/1, letter from A. Warsame, Vice President of the United Somali Association to Chief Secretary, 7 Oct. 1957; KNA CS 28/2/2, letter from President, Somali National Association to Chief Secretary, 24 Feb. 1959; KNA CS 28/2/2, letter from W. F. Coutts, Chief Secretary to M. Blundell, Minister for Agriculture, 7 Apr. 1959.
88 B. S. Cohn, Colonialism and Its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India (Princeton, NJ, 1996), 8; N. B. Dirks, Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India (Princeton, NJ, 2001); M. Mamdani, Define and Rule: Native as Political Identity (Cambridge, MA, 2012), 48–9; Scott, Seeing, 83.
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95 Campbell, E. H., ‘Urban refugees in Nairobi: problems of protection, mechanisms of survival, and possibilities of integration’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 19:3 (2006), 396–413CrossRefGoogle Scholar, doi:10.1093/jrs/fel011. Many citizens of Somali descent have also been denied official forms of identification due to government discrimination. Consequently, ID cards are often a poor marker of legal status.
96 Jerven, Poor, 73–4; Samora, ‘The Somali’; D. Zarembka, ‘Perilous times for Kenya's Somalis’, Foreign Policy in Focus, 21 Oct. 2013 (http://fpif.org/perilous-times-kenyas-somalis/).
97 Appadurai, Fear, 6.
98 J. Ferguson, The Anti-Politics Machine: ‘Development’, Depoliticization, and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho (Minneapolis, 1990), 19–20.
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