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THE NASTY WAR: ORGANISED VIOLENCE DURING THE ANYA-NYA INSURGENCY IN SOUTH SUDAN, 1963–72

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 May 2019

ØYSTEIN H. ROLANDSEN  and
NICKI KINDERSLEY
ØYSTEIN H. ROLANDSEN
Affiliation:
Peace Research Institute Oslo
NICKI KINDERSLEY
Affiliation:
Cambridge University
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Abstract

In 1963, unrest in Sudan's three southern provinces (today's South Sudan) escalated into a civil war between the government and the Anya-Nya rebellion. The subsequent eight years of violence has hitherto largely escaped scrutiny from academic researchers and has remained a subject of popular imagination and politicised narratives. This article demonstrates how this history can be explored with greater nuance, thereby establishing a local history of a postcolonial civil war. Focusing on the garrison town of Torit, our research reveals a localised and personalised rebellion, made up of a constellation of parochial armed groups. This new history also demonstrates how these parties built upon experiences from imperial conquest and colonial rule when entrenching violent wartime practices such as mass displacement and encampment, the raising of local militias and intelligence networks, and the deliberate starvation of civilians — all common methods in subsequent wars.

Keywords

South Sudangovernancecivil warrebellioncounter-insurgencyorganised violence
Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of African History , Volume 60 , Issue 1 , March 2019 , pp. 87 - 107
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019 

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Footnotes

This has been a long-term project, and the authors have incurred debts from many generous individuals, none of whom bear any responsibility for any shortcomings of this article. Financial support has come from the Research Council of Norway grant 214349/F10. The Norwegian Church Aid kindly facilitated our field visit to Torit and surrounding areas in August 2015. All custodians and administrators of archives have been very supportive of this research; the staff at the new South Sudan National Archive, under the leadership of Youssef Onyalla, have been extraordinarily helpful. Rebecca Glade has worked tirelessly with us to translate and make sense of difficult archival material; we are also grateful for assistance provided by Poppy Cullen and Helene Molteberg Glomnes. Corresponding author: Øystein H. Rolandsen, [email protected].

References

1 The Anya-Nya are differentiated from the Anyanya 2, a rebel group formed around 1976 out of disaffected Anya-Nya fighters following the Addis Ababa Agreement (see below). In this article we will refer to the 1963–72 rebel movement as simply ‘Anya-Nya’ throughout. The name Anya-Nya is a reference to a local poison, Ø. Rolandsen, H., ‘The Making of the Anya-Nya Insurgency in the Southern Sudan, 1961–64’, Journal of Eastern African Studies 5:2 (2011), 222CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

2 South Sudan National Archive, Juba (SSNA) Torit District (TD) Security Reports 36.A.1 1969-81, Torit Police Observer to Commander of the Forces of East Bank, 19 Sept. 1969; TD Security 36.A.1 Vol. 5 1965–6, 185–6; TD Security Reports 36.A.1 1968–9, 160.

3 SSNA TD Security Reports 36.A.1 1969–81, Torit Police Observer to Commander of the Forces of East Bank, 2 Aug. 1969.

4 SSNA TD Security Reports 36.A.1 1969–81, Torit Police Observer to Commander of the Forces of East Bank, 17 Sept. 1969.

5 SSNA TD Security Reports 36.A.1 1969–81, Daily Security Report for 26 June 1969.

6 Northwestern University Library Africana L962.904 A258w, J. H. Sheldon, ‘Mass murder in the Sudan’, Prevent World War III, Winter-Spring 1971; Comboni Archive Rome (CAR) A107 Busta 7, Andrew Churkali Loful Peter to Rev. Fr. Bresciani, 3 July 1970.

7 This article contributes to this methodological trend in the historiography of South Sudan, particularly in its use of the South Sudan National Archives (SSNA); see Willis, J., ‘The Southern Problem: Representing Sudan's Southern Provinces to c. 1970’, The Journal of African History 56:2 (2015), 281–300CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Leonardi, C., ‘South Sudanese Arabic and the Negotiation of the Local State, c. 1840–2011’, The Journal of African History 54:3 (2013), 351–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Leonardi, C., ‘Points of Order? Local Government Meetings as Negotiation Tables in South Sudanese History’, Journal of Eastern African Studies 9:4 (2015), 650–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ø. Rolandsen, H., ‘A False Start: Between War and Peace in the Southern Sudan, 1956–62’, The Journal of African History 52:1 (2011), 105–23CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rolandsen, ‘The Making’, 211–32; Ø. Rolandsen, H. and Leonardi, C., ‘Discourses of Violence in the Transition from Colonialism to Independence in Southern Sudan, 1955–1960’, Journal of Eastern African Studies 8:4 (2014), 609–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Kindersley, N., ‘Subject(s) to Control: Post-War Return Migration and State-Building in 1970s South Sudan’, Journal of Eastern African Studies 11 (2017), 211–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

8 The most comprehensive contribution is Poggo, S. S., The First Sudanese Civil War: Africans, Arabs and Israelis in the Southern Sudan, 1955–1972 (New York, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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11 Alier, A., Southern Sudan: Too Many Agreements Dishonoured (Exeter, 2003)Google Scholar; Lagu, J., Sudan Odyssey Through A State: From Ruin to Hope (Omdurman, 2006)Google Scholar.

12 More or less contemporary accounts include O'Ballance, E., The Secret War in the Sudan, 1955–1972 (London, 1977)Google Scholar; Eprile, C., War and Peace in the Sudan, 1955–1972 (Newton Abbot, 1974)Google Scholar; S. McCall ‘Unpublished Manuscript on the History of the First Civil War in South Sudan’ (1972), Sudan Open Archive (SOA) (https://sudanarchive.net), accessed 4 June 2018; Beshir, M. O., The Southern Sudan: Background to Conflict (New York, 1968)Google Scholar; Beshir, M. O., The Southern Sudan: From Conflict to Peace (London, 1975)Google Scholar; Wai, The African-Arab Conflict. More recent contributions include: Arop, A. M., The Genesis of Political Consciousness in South Sudan (Charleston, 2012)Google Scholar; Ga'le, S. Fuli Boki Tombe, Shaping a Free Southern Sudan: Memoirs of Our Struggle, 1934–1985 (Limuru, Kenya, 2002)Google Scholar; Paterno, S. A., The Rev. Fr. Saturnino Lohure: A Roman Catholic Priest Turned Rebel, the South Sudan Experience (Baltimore, 2007)Google Scholar; Magaya, M. A., The Anyanya Movement in South Sudan: Focusing on Western Equatoria 1962–72 (Kisubi, Uganda, 2014)Google Scholar; Malok, E., The Southern Sudan: Struggle for Liberty (Nairobi, 2009)Google Scholar.

13 Interpretations by foreign scholars include Johnson, D. H., The root causes of Sudan's civil wars (Oxford, 2003)Google Scholar; Thomas, E., South Sudan: A Slow Liberation (London, 2015)Google Scholar; Ø. Rolandsen, H. and Daly, M. W., A History of South Sudan: From Slavery to Independence (Cambridge, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

14 See Parsons, T., The 1964 Army Mutinies and the Making of Modern East Africa (Greenwood, 2003)Google Scholar; Parsons, T., ‘The Lanet incident, 2–25 January 1964: Military unrest and national amnesia in Kenya,’ The International Journal of African Historical Studies 40:1 (2006), 51–70Google Scholar; Russell, A., ‘Rebel and Rule in Burundi, 1972’, The International Journal of African Historical Studies 48:1 (2015), 73–97Google Scholar; Feyissa, D., ‘Power and Its Discontents: Anywaa's Reactions to the Expansion of the Ethiopian State, 1950–1991’, The International Journal of African Historical Studies 48:1 (2015), 31–50Google Scholar; Wiebel, J., ‘“Let the Red Terror Intensify”: Political Violence, Governance and Society in Urban Ethiopia, 1976–78’, The International Journal of African Historical Studies 48:1 (2015), 13–30Google Scholar; Peterson, D. R., ‘Violence and Political Advocacy in the Lost Counties, Western Uganda, 1930–64’, The International Journal of African Historical Studies 48:1 (2015), 51–72Google Scholar; Branch, D., Defeating Mau Mau, Creating Kenya: Counterinsurgency, Civil War, and Decolonization (Cambridge, 2009)Google Scholar; Stapleton, T., ‘“Bad Boys”: Infiltration and sedition in the African military units of the Central African Federation (Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe) 1953–1963’, The Journal of Military History 73:4 (2009), 1167–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

15 See, for example, Lemarchand, R., ‘Reflections on the Recent Historiography of Eastern Congo’, The Journal of African History 54:3 (2013), 417–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Autesserre, S., The Trouble with the Congo: Local Violence and the Failure of International Peacebuilding (Cambridge, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kalyvas, S. N., ‘Micro-Level Studies of Violence in Civil War: Refining and Extending the Control-Collaboration Model’, Terrorism and Political Violence 24:4 (2012), 658–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

16 SSNA TD Security Reports 36.A.1 Intelligence Reports Vol. 3 1959–61, handing over notes, 7 Feb. 1960. Khawarij literally means ‘those who went outside’.

17 In the 1970s these documents were collected into a regional archive in Juba, under the management of Robert Collins, Mading de Garang, Laurence Modi, Douglas Johnson and others, but the 1983–2005 war precluded the transfer of some district and provincial archives, particularly those from Bahr el Ghazal. From 2005, the British Institute in Eastern Africa, the Rift Valley Institute, and the new National Ministry for Culture have worked to rehouse, rescue, and digitise the surviving archive.

18 Other archives consulted include: the CAR; the UK National Archive (UKNA); the the Sudan Open Archives (SOA); US National Archive (NARA); Northwestern University Library Africana; and the Sudan Archive Durham (SAD).

19 Political developments in the period from 1955 to 1963 are relatively well-documented, primarily because unrest had not reached the level of civil war: see L. M. Passmore Sanderson and G. N. Sanderson, Education, Religion & Politics in Southern Sudan, 1899–1964 (London, 1981), 352–86; Rolandsen, ‘A False Start’; Rolandsen and Leonardi, ‘Discourses of Violence’.

20 Rolandsen and Leonardi, ‘Discourses of Violence’.

21 SSNA TD Security Reports 36.A.1 Intelligence Reports Vol. 3 1959–61, security report, 31 June 1960.

22 Over the period 1955–63, reports use various terminology, including ‘outlaws,’ ‘mutineers’, and ‘deserters’. We have simplified the terminology here. SSNA TD Security Reports 36.A.1 Intelligence Reports Vol. 3 1959–61, secret report, 16 Aug. 1960.

23 SSNA TD Security Reports 36.A.1 Intelligence Reports Vol. 3 1959–61, Police Observer for the Centre of Torit to Police Inspector for Torit Centre, Second Report on the Progress of the Department of Ikotos Sub-Centre, 7 January 1961.

24 SSNA TD Cypher 36.E.1, 1956–65, telegram, 17 July 1963.

25 SSNA TD 36.A.1, translated document from Langu language to English, 1 July 1963.

26 UKNA FO 371/178813, statement by the Sudan African National Union, ‘Imminent genocide in South Sudan’, 6 Mar. 1964.

27 This paragraph summarises Rolandsen, ‘The Anya-Nya Insurgency’; Poggo, First Sudanese Civil War; Johnson, Root Causes, 27–33; Passmore Sanderson and Sanderson, Education, Religion & Politics, 352–86.

28 UK National Archive (UKNA) FO 371/173230, ‘Enclosed study from Washington on the situation in South Sudan [sic]’, 28 Oct. 1963.

29 The UKNA FO 371/173230 file includes fragmented documentation of the outbreak of violence, e.g. ‘Enclosed Osman's report of his tour of the South Sudan [sic], 12 Nov. 1963; ‘Enclosed Study’. See also McCall, ‘The History of the First Civil War’; Poggo, First Sudanese Civil War; Rolandsen, ‘The Anya-Nya Insurgency’. Lagu, at that time stationed at the West bank of the Nile, has little to say about these attacks: Sudan Odyssey, 114.

30 Apparently, a reference to a five-shot version of the Lee-Enfield, a contemporary infantry rifle.

31 SSNA TD 36.A.1, report on rebel incidents, nd [c. 25 Sept. 1963]; TD Cypher 36.E.1 1956–65, telegram, 19 Sept. 1963.

32 SSNA TD 36.A.1, telegram, 20 Sept. 1963.

33 SSNA TD 36.A.1, intelligence report, 9 Oct. 1963; CAR A86/21/1, Voice of Southern Sudan 1:4, 12.

34 SSNA TD 36.A.1, police report, 27 Dec. 1963; CAR A94 Busta 1, anonymous press release, ‘Moslem Sudanese clap hands as they see Christian chief tortured to death,’ Oct. 1964.

35 UKNA FO 371/173230, United States Government internal report, ‘Increased tension in Southern Sudan,’ 10 July 1963.

36 See R. Debray, Revolution in the Revolution? (London, 2017); see also Payne, K., ‘Building the Base: Al Qaeda's Focoist Strategy,’ Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 34:2 (2011), 124–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

37 UKNA FO 371/173230, U.S. Embassy Khartoum, ‘The situation in the Southern Sudan,’ 28 Oct. 1963.

38 SSNA TD 36.A.1 1963–4, police report on rebel movements, 8 Sept. 1963; TD 36.A.1 1963–4, Ikotos police report for August 1963, 10 Sept. 1963; TD 36.A.1 1963–4, intelligence report, 11 Sept. 1963.

39 SSNA TD 36.A.1 1963–4, Inspector of Local Government Torit to Police Commandant for Equatoria Province, reporting intelligence from a chief, 5 Dec. 1963.

40 Quoted in Poggo, First Sudanese Civil War, 78.

41 For example, the interrogation of Alio Lukanga, captured by government forces and noted as the Inspector of the Centre of Kapoeta for the Anya-Nya Organisation, SSNA EP 36.E.1 1967.

42 SSNA TD 36. 1966, Daily Criminal Incident Report for 1 Aug. 1966.

43 CAR A86/10/3, Voice of Southern Sudan 2:4, February 1965.

44 UKNA FO 371/1778813, British Embassy Khartoum report, 14 Mar. 1964. However, a UK Foreign Office local defence attaché noted in August 1965 that Sudanese military intelligence was ‘nil’. FO 371/184147, Defence and Military Advisor, ‘Anyanya and the Southern Sudanese Rebels,’ 14 Aug. 1965.

45 UKNA FO 371/178813, A.D. Parsons, British Embassy Khartoum, ‘An account of an operation carried out by government forces in the Torit area recently,’ 20 Mar. 1964.

46 SSNA TD Intelligence Reports 36.A.3 1965, Commandant of Police Torit, telegram, nd. [c. 27 Feb. 1965]; TD Intelligence Reports 36.A.3 1965, Commandant of Police Torit, telegram, 21 July 1965.

47 For accounts of these massacres and their aftermath, see Poggo, First Sudanese Civil War, 83–7; D. H. Johnson, ‘The trial of The Vigilant: a turning point in Sudanese human rights’ (University of Durham, UK, 2000); Voice of Southern Sudan, 3:2, 8–14, 17; Alier, Too Many, 48–9; Fuli, Shaping a Free Southern Sudan, 271–2; Yangu, A. Mbali, The Nile Turns Red: Azanians Chose Freedom Against Arab Bondage (New York, 1966), 146–60Google Scholar.

48 Poggo, First Sudanese Civil War, 83, 85, 87; CAR A107 Busta 2, ‘Press conference by Mr Aggrey Jaden and Mr Gerorge Kwanai on behalf of the dying people of the Southern Sudan,’ 21 Oct. 1965.

49 Poggo, First Sudanese Civil War, 151–3.

50 SSNA TD Intelligence Reports 36.A.3 1965, Commandant of Police Torit, two telegrams, 10 July 1965.

51 CAR A/86/30/2, Anya Nya magazine, Apr. 1971, 3.

52 Interview with Severino Okilongi Oken Atari, Torit, 20 Aug. 2015.

53 Interview with Gaitano Irudeno Ibo, Imorok, 19 Aug. 2015.

54 SSNA TD 36.A.1 1965–6, Inspector of Local Government Torit to Governor, Equatoria State, 25 Nov. 1965.

55 SSNA TD 36.A.1 1965–6, monthly security report for Feb. 1966, 1 Mar. 1966.

56 SSNA TD 36.A.1 1965–6, monthly security report for Nov. 1965, 5 Dec. 1965.

57 CAR A104 Busta 9, H. B. Latuka to Stephen C. Lam, 28 Feb. 1966; SSNA TD 36.A.1 1965–6, monthly security report for Dec. 1965, 4 Jan. 1966.

58 CAR A87 Busta 7, ‘The Sudan: Africa Bleeds’, 25 Mar. 1966; also noted in SAD 919/6/150, account of 8 August 1965 in Le Figaro, 24–29 Mar. 1966.

59 Poggo, First Sudanese Civil War; Arop, The Genesis.

60 SSNA TD Security 36.A.1 1965–6, Daily Security Report for 12 Feb. 1966.

61 SSNA TD 36.A.1 1968–9, Daily Security Report for 11 May 1968; Voice of Southern Sudan 3, 15 Mar. 1969.

62 CAR A87 Busta 7, ‘The Sudan: Africa Bleeds,’ 25 Mar. 1966.

63 See also Rolandsen, ‘A False Start’, 112–5.

64 Interview with Severino Okilongi Oken Atari, Torit, 20 Aug. 2015.

65 CAR A107 Busta 3, Officer of C Company to Lohure, 25 Oct. 1965.

66 CAR A107 Busta 3, Officer of C Company to Lohure, 29 Apr. 1966.

67 SSNA TD 36. 1966, Daily Security Report for 19 Nov. 1966; SSNA TD 36. Daily Security Report for 23 Nov. 1966.

68 CAR A107 Busta 3, Paterno Ator to Lohure and Ezbon Mondiri, 14 July 1966.

69 SSNA TD 36. 1966, Daily Security Report for 22 June 1966.

70 SSNA EP 36.E.1 1966, Local Government Inspector for Kapoeta to Governor, Equatoria State, ‘Report on political situation and prospects for peace’, 11 June 1966.

71 Ibid.

72 SSNA TD 36. 1966, Daily Security Report for 7 Sept. 1966; TD 36.A.1 1968–9, Daily Security Report for 11 Nov. 1968.

73 SSNA TD 36.A.1 1968–9, Daily Security Report for 11 Nov. 1968.

74 Kalyvas, S. N., The Logic of Violence in Civil War (Cambridge, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

75 CAR A107 Busta 5, Vincent Iboti to Lohure, 17 Nov. 1965.

76 SSNA EP 36.E.1 1966, Louis Adoma, Acting Local Government Inspector for the Anya-Nya ‘To the Didinga (the Kalaniya, Makariya, and Murlim)’, 30 June 1966.

77 E. Kurimoto ‘Civil War & Regional Conflicts: The Pari & Their Neighbours’; Fukui, K. and Markakis, J. (eds.), Ethnicity & Conflict in the Horn of Africa, (Oxford, 1994) 95–111Google Scholar; Leonardi, C., Dealing with Government in South Sudan: Histories in the Making of Chiefship, Community and State (Suffolk, UK, 2013)Google Scholar.

78 Interview with Fr. Thomas Oligha, Torit, 18 Aug. 2015.

79 SSNA EP 36.E.1 1966, Local Inspector for Kapoeta to Commander of the 1st Battalion of the Eastern Front, 24 Jan. 1967.

80 SSNA TD 36. 1966, Daily Security Report for 19 Nov. 1966; SSNA TD 36. 1966, Daily Security Report for 23 Nov. 1966.

81 Lagu, Odyssey.

82 For example, the attacks and murders noted in SSNA TD 36.A.1 1963–4, Sgt. Adelino Orama, Police Department Torit, report on attack, 9 Sept. 1963; Inspector of Local Government Torit to Commandant of Police, Equatoria Province, 29 Oct. 1963; Inspector of Local Government Torit to Commandant of Police, Equatoria Province, 9 Nov. 1963.

83 SSNA TD Security 36.A.1 1965–6, Inspector of Local Government Torit to Governor, Equatoria Province, 25 Nov. 1965.

84 Interview with Caesar Omiri Tiberius, Imoruk, 19 Aug. 2015.

85 CAR A107 Busta 3, Anya-Nya monthly report for Oct.–Nov. 1965.

86 SSNA TD Security 36.A.1 1965–6, Monthly Security Report for November 1965, 5 Dec. 1965; TD Security 36.A.1 1965–6, Ikotos army post note, ‘Commanding of the outlaws at Ikotos,’ 26 Nov. 1965.

87 CAR A107 Busta 4, Lohuyoro, C Company, to Lohure, 27 Jan. 1966; corroborated by SSNA TD Security 36.A.1 1965–6, Daily Security Report for 5 Feb. 1966; and corroborated further by CAR A107 Busta 2, Morko Hirmute, C Company, to Lohure, 9 Feb. 1966.

88 SSNA TD Security 36.A.1 1965–6, Daily Security Report for 5 Feb. 1966.

89 For example, on 4 and 5 Nov. 1965, in Torit town, the chief's policemen Labana Lakrit and Alberato and the health officer Richard Awkilo all disappeared. On 5 Nov. in Kiyala, the teachers Awdalino, Nayo, and Marlino also disappeared: SSNA TD Security 36.A.1 1965–6, Monthly Security Report for November 1965, 5 Dec. 1965. On 6 Dec. 1965, Franco Bali, the guard of the agricultural store of Magwi, was reportedly kidnapped by rebels: TD Security 36.A.1 1965–6, Monthly Security Report for December 1965, 4 Jan. 1966. The bodies of other kidnapping victims were later found; see TD Security 36.A.1 1966–8, Daily Security Report for 7 June 1968.

90 SSNA TD Security 36.A.1 1966–8, Daily Security Report for 23 June 1968.

91 SSNA TD Security 36.A.1 1965–6, intelligence report, 1 Dec. 1965.

92 SSNA TD Security 36.A.1 1966–8, Monthly Report for June 1968, 4 July 1968. There are few mentions of the national guard in established literature: Poggo, First Sudanese Civil War; Kindersley, ‘Subject(s) to control’; Thomas, South Sudan; D. H. Johnson, Nuer Prophets: A History of Prophecy from the Upper Nile in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Oxford, 1994), 302–4.

93 SSNA TD Security 36.A.1 1966–8, Daily Security Report for 23 July 1968.

94 SSNA TD 36. 1966, Daily Criminal Incident Report for 24 Aug. 1966.

95 See Daily Criminal Incident Report in SSNA TD Security 36.A.1 1966–8 and in TD Security Reports 36.A.1 1969–81.

96 Poggo, First Sudanese Civil War, 80.

97 Northwestern University Library Africana L962.904 A258w, J. H. Sheldon, ‘Mass murder in the Sudan’, Prevent World War III, Winter-Spring 1971; CAR A107 Busta 7, Andrew Churkali Loful Peter to Rev. Fr. Bresciani, 3 July 1970.

98 SSNA TD Security 36.A.1 1965–6, Daily Security Report for 19 March 1966.

99 SSNA EP 36.E.1 1966, Local Government Inspector for Kapoeta to Governor, Equatoria State, ‘Report on political situation and prospects for peace’, 11 June 1966.

100 For example, see SSNA TD 36. 1966, Daily Security Report for 24 Aug. 1966.; SSNA EP 36.E.1 1966, multiple reports in October 1966; SSNA TD 36.A.1 1968, multiple reports in July and December 1968; SSNA TD 36.A.1 1969, multiple reports in August 1969.

101 SSNA TD 36.A.1 1968–9, intelligence letter, 17 Dec. 1968.

102 Interview with Fr. Thomas Oligha, Torit, 18 Aug. 2015.

103 SSNA TD Security Reports 36.A.1 1969–81, Torit Police Observer to Commander of Forces of East Bank, 21 July 1969.

104 SSNA TD Security Reports 36.A.1 1969–81, Torit Police Observer to Commander of Forces of East Bank, 23 Aug. 1969.

105 Interview with Gaitano Irudeno Ibo.

106 Poggo, First Sudanese Civil War, 87.

107 Downes, A. B., Targeting Civilians in War (Ithaca, NY, 2008)Google Scholar.

108 See Kindersley, ‘Subject(s) to Control’.

109 Poggo, First Sudanese Civil War, 88.

110 Kindersley, ‘Subject(s) to Control’, 7–8.

111 SSNA TD Security Reports 36.A.1 1969–81, Representative of Torit South East to Minister of Interior, 23 Nov. 1968; TD Security 36.A.1 1966–8, Daily Security Report for 17 Mar. 1968; TD Security 36.A.1 1966–8, Daily Security Report for 6 June 1968.

112 For this history, see Alier, Too Many; Lagu, Sudan Odyssey ; Johnson, Root Causes, 36–41; Rolandsen and Daly, A History, 88–92; Arop, The Genesis, 195–203.

113 SSNA TD Security Reports 36.A.1 1969–81, Torit Police Observer to Equatoria Province Commander of Police, 17 July 1969.

114 For example, see Hutchinson, S., Nuer Dilemmas: Coping with Money, War, and the State (Berkeley, 1996)Google Scholar; Hutchinson, S. and Pendle, N., ‘Violence, legitimacy, and prophecy: Nuer struggles with uncertainty in South Sudan,’ American Ethnologist 42:3 (2015), 415–430CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Jok, J. M. and Hutchinson, S., ‘Sudan's Prolonged Second Civil War and the Militarization of Nuer and Dinka Ethnic Identities’, African Studies Review 42:2 (1999), 125–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kindersley, N. and Rolandsen, Ø. H., ‘Civil War on a Shoestring: Rebellion in South Sudan's Equatoria Region’, Civil Wars 19:3 (2017): 308–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar.