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Mtunya: Famine in Central Tanzania, 1917–20*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 January 2009

Gregory Maddox
Gregory Maddox
Affiliation:
Texas Southern University
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Extract

In the Dodoma Region of central Tanzania the people called Wagogo name a famine that struck between 1917 and 1920 the Mtunya—‘The Scramble’. This famine came after both German and British miliary requisitions had drained the arid region of men, cattle and food. The famine, which killed 30,000 of the region's 150,000 people, is more than just a good example of what John Iliffe has called ‘conjunctural poverty’. The Mtunya and the response to it by both the people of the region and the new colonial government also shaped the form of the interaction between local economy and society and the political economy of colonial Tanganyika. The Gogo, in their own interpretation of the famine, stress the ways in which this famine made them dependent on the colonial economy. For them, this famine represented a terrible loss of autonomy, a loss of the ability to control the reproduction of their own society.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of African History , Volume 31 , Issue 2 , July 1990 , pp. 181 - 197
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1990

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References

1 Iliffe, John, The African Poor: A History (Cambridge, 1988), 156–7.Google Scholar

2 Ugogo, the land of the Gogo, occupies what are now the Dodoma and Mpwapwa Districts of Dodoma Region and much of the Manyoni District of Singida Region. Under German rule, and British adminstration until 1925, Ugogo was combined with what is now Singida District into an enlarged Dodoma District. There were substations at Singida, Mpwapwa and Kilimatinde (which was replaced by Manyoni as a station in the mid-1920s) that reported directly to the District Office in Dodoma. District reports from Dodoma contain information from all parts of the District while subdistrict reports concentrate on either Kilimatinde or Mpwapwa.

3 Tanzania National Archives (hereafter TNA) 967.828, Dodoma District Reports, H. Hignell, Annual Report for 1925.

4 Rigby, Peter, Cattle and Kinship among the Gogo: A Semi-Pastoral Society of Central Tanzania (Ithaca, N.Y., 1969), 20–1Google Scholar, and ‘Politics and modern leadership roles in Ugogo’, in Turner, Victor (ed.), Colonialism in Africa i870–1960: III, Profiles of Change: African Society and Colonial Rule (Cambridge, 1971), 401–2Google Scholar, where he calls the colonial accounts of the Mtunya ‘slightly exaggerated’; my own research supports the view that the Mtunya caused major dislocations among the societies of the region.

5 Iliffe, John, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge, 1979), 269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

6 Brooke, Clarke ‘The heritage of famine in Central Tanzania’, Tanzania Notes and Records, no. 66 (1967), 20.Google Scholar

7 See also Sissons, C. J., ‘Economic prosperity in Ugogo, East Africa, 1860–1890’ (Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto, 1984)Google Scholar; and Maddox, G. H., ‘Leave Wagogo, you have no food: Famine and survival in Ugogo, Tanzania, 1916–1961’ (Ph.D. thesis, Northwestern University, 1988)Google Scholar, chs. 2 and 3.

8 See Kjekshus, Helge, Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History: The Case of Tanganyika 1840–1940 (London and Berkeley, 1977)Google Scholar; Ambler, Charles, Kenyan Communities in the Age of Imperialism: The Central Region in the Late Nineteenth Century (New Haven, 1988)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Johnson, Douglas H. and Anderson, David M. (eds.), The Ecology of Survival: Case Studies from Northeast African History (London and Boulder, 1988)Google Scholar, especially the Introduction, 1–24, and chapters by Richard Pankhurst and Douglas H. Johnson (47–70), Richard Waller (73–112), and David M. Anderson (241–60); and Giblin, James L., ‘Famine, authority and the impact of foreign capital in Handeni District, Tanzania, 1840–1940’ (Ph.D. thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1986).Google Scholar

9 Interviews were conducted in the Dodoma Region of Tanzania in 1986 and 1987. Full transcripts of all interviews are available in Maddox, ‘Leave Wagogo’, appendix. Interviews are referred to by accession numbers. I/48/122A, 123 A Chamwilo, etc.

10 I/49/124A–129A Nyaulingo, etc.; I/48/122A, 123A Chamwilo, etc.; I/45/114A–117A Kaloli, etc.; I/3/3A Kongola; I/17/14A–26A Chidoza, etc.; and I/38/87 A–95 A Magagi, etc.

11 Gardner, Brian, German East (London, 1963), 87.Google Scholar

12 TNA 967.828, Dodoma District Reports, District Political Officer to Chief Secretary of German East Africa, 5 December 1916.

13 Ibid.

14 I/27/38 A Gazo.

15 I/52/159A–164A Kalunju, etc.

16 For a summary of the impact of the war on the colony as a whole, see Iliffe, , Modern History, 246.Google Scholar

17 Public Record Office, London: Colonial Office Files (hereafter CO) 691, vol. III, ‘Administration of occupied area up to 1 December 1916’, Col. W. J. Monson.

18 I/38/87A–95A Magagi, etc.

19 TNA 967.828, Dodoma District Reports, D.P.O. to Administrator Occupied Territory, 29 July 1917.

20 TNA 967.828, Dodoma District Reports, Periodic Report, 15 April 1917.

21 CO 691, vol. III, C. W. Duff to Administrator in Charge Occupied Territory, 19 March 1917.

22 CO 691, vol. III, minutes of a meeting in Sir Ernest Moirs' Office, Ministry of Munitions, 17 December 1917.

23 I/31/46A–51A Musa, etc.

24 TNA 967.828, Dodoma District Reports, D.P.O. to Byatt, 29 July 1917.

25 CO 691, vol. XV, H. Byatt to Secretary of State, 4 November 1918.

26 I/35/54A–60A Lepichiu, etc.; I/32/52A Biringi; I/51/143A–158A Mpilini, etc.; and I/49/124A–129A Nyaulingo, etc.

27 Mbogoni, L. E. Y., ‘Ecological crisis and food production in Dodoma 1920–1960: Colonial efforts in developing the productive forces’ (M.A. thesis, University of Dar es Salaam, 1981), 54.Google Scholar

28 CO 691, vol. XXI, P. J. Sillitoe to H. Byatt, 24 March 1919.

29 I/29/42 A Kaka. Saving and using the hulls from sorghum and millet was a common famine-prevention practice.

30 I/35/61A–73A Mzena, etc.

31 I/51/143A–158A Mpilini, etc.

32 I/28/39A–41A Msaka, etc.

33 I/30/42B, 43A–45A Kaka, etc.

34 I/38/87A–95A Magagi, etc.

35 I/27/38A Gazo.

36 TNA 967.828, Dodoma District Reports, 6 Dec. 1916, and Report for the Year Ending 31 March 1919, P. J. Sillitoe. For the early years of British rule, the German East African rupee remained the currency of the colony. It was divided into 100 hellers. 15 rupees equalled 20 East African shillings. Iliffe, , Modern History, XVIII.Google Scholar

37 TNA 967.825, Manyoni District Reports, F. C. Buckley, Kilimatinde Sub-District Report for the year 4 Jan. 1919 to 31 March 1920.

38 TNA 967.828, Dodoma District Reports, H. Hignell, Annual Report for 1925.

39 I/35/61A–73A Mzena, etc.; TNA 967.825, Manyoni District Reports, F. C. Buckley, Kilimatinde Annual Report, 20 March 1920; and I/27/38A Gazo.

40 I/28/39A–41A Msaka, etc.; and I/3/3A Kongola.

41 I/43/113A Cheliga. Mzee Cheliga provided written responses to questions, from which this quote comes.

42 I/29/42A Kaka.

43 I/6/6A–7A Sikana and Lyacho; and I/5/5A Father Steven Mlundi.

44 TNA 967.828, Dodoma District Reports, Periodical Report for Dodoma District, D. W. Duff, 15 April 1917.

45 TNA 967.828, Dodoma District Reports, Annual Report for 1919–1920, H. Hignell, 23 April 1920; and Ambler, , Kenyan Communities, 138–41.Google Scholar

46 I/34/54A–60A Lepichiu, etc.

47 I/33/53 A Sahali.

48 I/36/74A–81A Mapalasha, etc.; I/39/96A–101A Luangi, etc.; I/30/42B, 43A–46A Kaka, etc.; and I/17/14A–26A Chidoza, etc.

49 I/5/5A Father Steven Mlundi.

50 Hugh Hignell, Provincial Commissioner, to Chief Secretary, ‘Report on the Wagogo’, 19 June 1927, Dodoma District Book. The District Books for Tanzania are available on microfilm from the Co-operative Africana Microfilm Project of the Centre for Research Libraries in Chicago, Illinois. In particular, some informants recalled people moving to Mvumi, and as a result the Mtemi, Mazengo, seems to have strengthened his position as the strongest Mtemi in Ugogo (I/17/14A–26A Chidoza, etc.; and I/36/74A–81A Mapalasha, etc.). The surplus food may, however, have come from the mission station at Mvumi rather than from local production.

51 I/28/39A–41A Msaka, etc. Other versions are found in: I/40/102A–106A Chipanga, etc.; I/25/31A–36A Baja, etc.; I/17/14A–26A Chidoza, etc. For the two versions dating it later see I/32/52A Biringi; and I/34/54A–60A Lepichiu, etc.

52 See I/32/52A Biringi; and I/34/54A–60A Lepichiu, etc.

53 See Ambler, , Kenyan Communities, 1–4Google Scholar; Waller, Richard, ‘Emutai: crisis and response in Maasailand, 1883–92’, in Johnson, and Anderson, (eds.), Ecology of Survival, 74–5Google Scholar; and Giblin, J. L., ‘Explaining the death of Mzee Mtunte: the decline of authority and environmental control in Northeastern Tanzania under German colonial rule’, paper presented at the Canadian African Studies Association meeting (Kingston, Ontario, 1988)Google Scholar, for similar accounts of the way communities interpret disasters.

54 Historia Fupi wa Mbeyu ya Wjenvulisa Toka 1666 Mpaka 1986: ‘Mbukwa Muhindi wa Cinambi’ (Dodoma, 1986), 14.Google Scholar

55 I/39/96A–101A Luangi, etc.

56 I/28/39A–41A Msaka, etc.

57 I/35/61A–73A Mzena, etc.

58 I/31/46A–51A Musa, etc.

59 I/39/96A–101A Luangi, etc.

60 CO 691, vol. XXI, P. J. Sillitoe to H. Byatt, 24 March 1919. I could find no copy of O'Kelly's letter in either the Colonial Office archives or the War Office archives in London, nor in the Tanzania National Archives.

61 For example, Dodoma District Book, H. Hignell to Chief Secretary, ‘Report on the Wagogo’, 19 June 1927.

62 Ambler, , Kenyan Communities, 60–2.Google Scholar

63 I/37/82A–86A Ali, etc.; I/51/143A–158A Mpilini, etc.; I/38/87A–95A Magagi, etc.; I/39/96A–101A Luangi, etc.; I/40/102A–106A Chipanga, etc.; and I/41/107A–112A Mnyambwa, etc.

64 I/35/61A–73A Mzena, etc.

65 I/47/119A–121A Mapuga, etc.

66 I/38/87A–95A Magagi, etc.; and I/36/74A–81A Mapalasha, etc.

67 I/41/107A–112A Mnyambwa, etc.

68 I/45/114A–117A Kaloli, etc.

69 I/37/82A-86A Ali, etc., I/45/114A–117A Kaloli, etc., and I/40/102A–106A Chipanga, etc.

70 Iliffe, , African Poor, 4–7.Google Scholar

71 CO 691, vol. XXI, P. J. Sillitoe to H. Byatt, 24 March 1919.

72 Ibid.

73 I/52/159A–164A Kalunju, etc.

74 TNA 967.828, Dodoma District Reports, P. J. Sillitoe, Annual Report for the Year Ending 31 March 1919.

75 CO 691, vol. XXI, H. Hallis to Secretary of State, 1 May 1919.

76 TNA 967.825, Manyoni District Reports, F. C. Buckley, Annual Report for the Year Ending 20 March 1920.

77 TNA 967.828, Dodoma District Reports, H. Hignell, Annual Report for 1925.

78 H. Hignell to Chief Secretary, ‘Report on the Wagogo’, 19 June 1927, Dodoma District Book.

79 TNA 967.828, Dodoma District Reports, H. Hignell, Annual Report for 1919–1920.

80 I/48/122A, 123A Chamwilo, etc.; I/47/119A–121A Mapuga, etc.; I/45/114A–117A Kaloli, etc.; I/35/61A–73A Mzena, etc.; and I/36/74A–81A Mapalasha, etc.

81 I/48/122A–123A Chamwilo, etc.

82 I/41/107A–112A Mnyambwa, etc.; I/52/159A–164A Kalunju, etc.; I/39/96A–101A Luangi, etc.; I/27/38A Gazo; and I/17/14A–26A Chidoza, etc.

83 I/30/42B, 43A–46A Kaka, etc.; I/35/61A–73A Mzena, etc.; I/36/74A–81A Mapalasha, etc.; and I/6/6A–7A Sikana and Lyacho.

84 TNA 967.828, Dodoma District Reports, H. Hignell, Annual Report 1919–1920; and TNA 967.825, Manyoni District Reports, F. C. Buckley, Kilimatinde Annual Report 1919–1920.

85 TNA 967.828, Dodoma District Reports, H. Hignell, Annual Report 1919–1920.

86 Rigby, , Cattle and Kinship, 21–22.Google Scholar

87 Iliffe, , Modern History, 269.Google Scholar

88 ‘Population’, Dodoma District Book.

89 Maddox, , ‘Leave Wagogo’, 182–84.Google Scholar

90 I/28/39A–41A Msaka, etc., where Father Damus claims the story is also common in Usandawe.

91 I/28/39A–41A Msaka, etc.; I/41/107A–112A Mnyambwa, etc.; I/29/42A Kaka; I/35/61A–73A Mzena, etc.; I/40/102A–106A Chipanga, etc.; and I/36/74A–81A Mapalasha, etc. Others said the harvest came from the plantings in 1919 which had not sprouted, and that people got a harvest despite not planting; see I/30/42B, 43A–45A Kaka, etc.; and I/37/82A–86A Ali, etc.

92 Anderson, D. M.. ‘Depression, dust bowl, demography, and drought: the colonial state and soil conservation in East Africa during the 1930s’, African Affairs, lxxxiii (1984). 321–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

93 Maddox, ‘Leave Wagogo’, chs. 6 and 7.