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Islam, Migration and the Political Economy of Meaning: Fergo Nioro from the Senegal River Valley, 1862–1890

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 January 2009

John H. Hanson
John H. Hanson
Affiliation:
Indiana University — Bloomington
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Extract

The Muslim social movement known as the fergo Nioro provides a case of popular elaboration of the message of a leader of jihad. Umar Tal's call to holy war led to the conquest of Karta in the mid-1850s, and his call to hijra resulted in the migration of perhaps 20,000 Senegal-valley Fulbe to form a Muslim settler community. In the years after Umar's departure from Karta in 1859, military leaders and others in the Fulbe settler community sent envoys to recruit additional settlers from the Senegal valley. At least 16,000 and perhaps as many as 30,000 Fulbe responded to this recruitment effort and left Bundu, Futa Toro and the lower Senegal valley between 1862 and 1890. Two periods of more massive migration coincided with the residence at Nioro of Amadu Sheku, Umar's son and designated successor. During the late 1860s and early 1870s, a cholera epidemic swept up the Senegal valley, claimed thousands of victims, and encouraged Fulbe to leave the region for Karta. During the mid-1880s, French policies in the Senegal valley, notably the emancipation of slaves and moves to halt Fulbe raids in the lower Senegal valley, influenced the social movement.

In both periods of large-scale migration and at other times, the Umarian envoys constructed an appeal which elaborated and even transformed Umar's call to hijra. Umar's insistence on holy war was a dominant theme in all periods, and resonated with the young men who left the valley in hopes of accumulating wealth through warfare. His condemnation of French influence in the Senegal valley was also expressed in the Arabic letters delivered by envoys. Umar's emphasis on the cutting of social bonds was not emphasized, as Fulbe settlers sought to attract relatives and neighbors to the new Fulbe communities in Karta.

Type
West African Islam and Society
Information
The Journal of African History , Volume 35 , Issue 1 , March 1994 , pp. 37 - 60
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1994

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References

1 An earlier version of this article appeared as a paper at the Annual Meeting of the US African Studies Association in Seattle, Washington, in 1992. I would like to thank the panel's organizer, Andrew Clark, its discussant, Philip Curtin, and Martin Klein for his comments from the audience. I also appreciated the comments from David Robinson and two other (anonymous) readers for the Journal. Errors in fact and any misjudgments in interpretation are my own.

2 Fudi, Uthman ibn, Bayān wujūb al-hijra ‘ala’ l-ʿibād (ed. and trans. El-Masri, F. H.) (Khartoum, 1978)Google Scholar; Fudi, Uthman ibn, Wathīqat ahl al-sudān (ed. and trans. Bivar, A. D. H.), J. Afr. Hist., 11 (1961), 235–43Google Scholar; Umar Tal, Rimāh ḥizb al-rahim ʾala nuhūr ḥizb al-rajīm (copies may be found in the Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris, Manuscrits Orientaux, Fonds Arabe, vol. 5370, ff. 1–202, vol. 5583, ff. 1–243). Accounts of these hijra appear in Bello, Muhammad, Infaq al-maisur (ed. Whiting, C. E. J.) (London, 1951Google Scholar); and Tyam, Mohammadou Aliou, La vie d'El Hadj Omar; qaçida en Poular (ed. and trans. Gaden, H.) (Paris, 1935).Google Scholar

3 Attahiru wrote an untitled poem which Hiskett, Mervyn translates from the Hausa in The Development of Islam in West Africa (London, 1984), 269–71.Google Scholar An anonymous chronicle of Amadu Sheku's hijra by a participant appears as Document 20 in Hanson, John and Robinson, David (eds. and trans.), After the Jihād: The Reign of Aḥmad al-Kabīr in the Western Sudan (East Lansing, 1991).Google Scholar

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5 I refer to Pulaar-speakers (haalpulaarʾen) as Fulbe and do not distinguish between peul/toucouleur (Fulbe/Tukulor) as practiced by some authors. Haalpulaarʾen are widely dispersed in West Africa and have acquired numerous other referents such as Fulani and Fula.

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8 ANS 2B75: St. Louis, 23 Jan. 1884, Governor to the Minister; St. Louis, 7 Feb. 1889, Governor to the Minister.

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16 ANS 13G101: Dagana, 8 Sept. 1862, Ct. Dagana to the Governor.

17 ANS 13G104: Dagana, 3 Apr. and 8 May 1869, Ct. Dagana to the Governor; 13G105: Dagana, 10 May 1870, Ct. Dagana to the Governor; 13G124: Podor, 12 May 1870, Ct. Podor to the Governor; 15G109: n.p. (Medine?), 29 Mar. 1870, Ct. Medine to the Governor; 13G145: Aéré, 24 Jan. 1871, Ct. Aéré to the Governor; 13G171: Bakel, 9 and 16 Nov. 1872, Ct. Bakel to the Governor.

18 ANS 13G107: Dagana, 6 Nov. 1874, Ct. Dagana to Governor; 13G108: Dagana, ‘Copie du journal de poste’, Mar. 1875.

19 ANM 1E207: Medine, 7 Dec. 1885, Ct. Medine to Ct. Superior; ANS 13G132: Aéré, 8 Jan. 1886, Ct. Aéré to the Governor; 13G41: Podor, 18 Aug. and 1 Nov. 1886, Ct. Podor to the Director of Political Affairs in Saint Louis; 15G66: Kayes, 7 June 1887, Ct. Kayes to Ct. Superior; 1D95: n.p., Apr. 1889, ‘Rapport politique’.

20 ANS 13G 127:Podor, 18 Mar. 1878, Ct. Podor to the Governor; 13G187: Bakel, 31 May and 6 June 1887, Ct. Bakel to Ct. Superior.

21 ANS 1D73: Kayes, 31 Oct. 1883, Ct. Superior to the Governor; ANS 15G126: Kita, 29 Apr. 1884, Ct. Kita to the Ct. Superior.

22 ANF SOM SEN, 1, 61c: St. Louis, 22 Mar. and 5 June 1878, Governor to the Minister.

23 Boubakar Sadio, interview conducted by Alain Faliu on 16 Aug. 1976 at Kadiogne, Senegal, transcribed in ‘Les Peuls Oudabé de l'arrondissement de Tylié Boubakar’, mimeo, 1977; Mamadou Alfa Diallo, Bassiru Alfa Diallo and El-Hadj Isma Sow, two interviews (each) conducted by Abdoul Aziz Diallo in 1977 and 1979 at Gavinané, Mali. Alfa Idrissa Diallo, the father of both Mamadou and Bassiru, served as Emile Blanc's informant in 1919 at the age of 73. Blanc, Emile, ‘Contribution à l'étude des populations et de l'histoire du Sahel soudanaise’, Bulletin du Comitéd'Etudes Historiques et Scientifiques de l'Afrique Occidentale Française, VII (1924), 259–314Google Scholar. Diallo kindly shared his oral evidence with me.

24 ANS 13G127: Podor, 14 Mar. 1878, Ct. Podor to Ct. Bakel; 13G41: Dagana, 2 Mar. 1886, Ct. Dagana to the Governor, and Podor, 2 Mar. 1886, Ct. Podor to the Director of Political Affairs.

25 Various Fulbe leaders in Toro returned with daughters of the Bamana ruling family. ANS 13G101: Dagana, 5 Feb. 1863, Ct. Dagana to the Governor.

26 Robinson, , Chiefs and Clerics, 66–7.Google Scholar

27 An Arabic chronicle narrates Samba Umahani's role in the Umarian victory. See Document 4 in Hanson and Robinson, After the Jihād.

28 ANS 123: Podor, 5 Apr. and 17 Sept. 1866, Ct. Podor to the Governor; Robinson, , Chiefs and Clerics, 81–2Google Scholar. During his reign from 1869 until his death in 1878, Samba occasionally attacked caravans of migrants making the fergo Nioro in order to prevent subjects from leaving or to honor French requests.

29 ANF SOM SEN, 1, 61c: St. Louis, 22 Mar. and 5 June 1878, Governor to the Minister.

30 ANS 13G171: Bakel, 1 Apr. 1869, Ct. Bakel to the Governor; 13G185: Bakel, ‘Copie du registre journal de poste’, May 1885.

31 ANS 13G41: St. Louis, 6 Mar. 1878, to the Director of Political Affairs(?); Salde, 1 May 1886, Ct. Salde to the Governor.

32 ANS 13G41: St. Louis, n.d. [Aug. 1886?], ‘Declaration du nommé Aly Binta’.

33 ANS 13G113: Dagana, ‘Bulletin agricole, commercial et politique’, Sept. 1886; 13G41: Podor, 1 Nov. 1886, Ct. Podor to the Governor (copy).

34 ANS 13G41: Dagana, 19 and 20 June, 3 and 30 Sept. 1886, Ct. Dagana to the Governor; Podor, 2 and 8 Sept., 22 Oct. 1886, Ct. Podor to the Director of Political Affairs. For the Devès family, see Manchuelle, François, ‘Métis et colons: la famille Devès et l'émergence politique des Africains au Sénégal, 1881–1897’, Cah. ét. Afr. XCVI (1984), 477–504.Google Scholar

35 Examples include ANS 13G127: Podor, 5 Dec. 1878, Ct. Podor to the Governor; 13G185: Bakel, ‘Copie du registre journal de poste’, May 1885; 13G41: Salde, n.d. [January 1887?], Ct. Salde to the Governor.

36 ANS 13G187: Bakel, ‘Bulletin agricole, commercial et politique’, Feb., Apr., May, June 1887.

37 ANS 13G132: Podor, 1 Oct. 1886, Ct. Podor to the Governor; and ‘Bulletin agricole, commercial et politique’, Jan. 1887.

38 ANM 1D51: ‘Notice historique sur la région du Sahel par Ct. de Lartigues’; ANS 1D105: ‘Rapport sur la campagne, 1889–90’; 1G310: Kayes, 30 Mar. 1904, ‘Renseignements historiques’.

39 Blanc, , ‘Contribution à l'étude’, 274–5.Google Scholar

40 Hanson, John, ‘Generational cleavages in the Umarian movement after the jihād’, J. Afr. Hist., XXXI (1990), 199–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

41 Kanya-Forstner, A. S., The French Conquest of the Western Sudan (Cambridge, 1969).Google Scholar

42 ANS 13G230: Kayes, 20 and 25 Mar. 1890, Ct. Kayes to Ct. Bakel; and Bamako, 27 Mar. 1890, Ct. Superior to Ct. Kayes.

43 Charles, Eunice, Precolonial Senegal: The Jolof Kingdom 1800 to 1890 (Boston, 1977)Google Scholar; Robinson, , Chiefs and Clerics, 153–5Google Scholar; Robinson, , Holy War, 371.Google Scholar

44 Robinson, ‘The Umarian migrations’.

45 Robinson, David, ‘French “Islamic” policy and practice in late nineteenth century Senegal’, J. Afr. Hist., XXIX (1988), 415–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

46 ANS 13G172: Bakel (c. 1873?), ‘Instructions générales laissées à mon successeur’; 13G112: Dagana, 28 Sept. 1883, Ct. Dagana to the Governor (margin notes); 13G41: St. Louis, 22 Oct. 1886, Chief of the Bureau of Indigenous Affairs to the Director of the Interior.

47 The first use of this strategy occurred in 1869. ANS 13G104: Dagana, ‘Bulletin agricole, commercial et politique’, Apr. 1869.

48 ANS 13G113: Dagana, 12 Mar. 1869, Ct. Dagana to the Governor; 13G171: Bakel, 1 Apr. 1869, Ct. Bakel to the Governor.

49 ANS 13G103: Dagana, 6 Oct. 1868, Ct. Dagana to the Governor; 13G124: Podor, 26 Jan. 1869, Ct. Podor to the Governor.

50 Coulibaly, Boubacar, ‘L'Armée toucouleur du jihād omarien’ (Université Cheikh Anta Diop, mémoire de maîtrise, 1978).Google Scholar

51 Wélé, ‘Le fergo omarien’.

52 ANF SOM SEN, VII, 16a: St. Louis, 18 Dec. 1889, Governor to the Minister.

53 ANM 1D51 (census reports for 1895 and 1899) and 5D29/5D36 (census reports for 1904).

54 See note 7 above.

55 ANM 1D82: ‘Rapport sur la necessité de donner aux Peuls Toronké du Kingi un état social’, 1905.

56 This figure is an estimate, as the French did not make much of an effort to count the numbers of Umarian dead. Various figures are reported for individual battles in ANS 1D103, 1D104, 1D117.

57 ‘La population de la vallée de Sénégal: compte-rendu de la réunion tenue à Dakar les 21, 22, 23 mai 1984’ (mimeo, 1984) Robinson, , Chiefs and Clerics, 184–90.Google Scholar

58 ANS 13G100: Dagana, 23 Mar. 1858, Ct. Dagana to the Governor; 13G101: Dagana, 11 June and 31 Oct. 1859, Ct. Dagana to the Governor.

59 ANS 13G101: Dagana, 9 Nov. 1863, Ct. Dagana to the Governor.

60 ANM 1E201: Kayes, 10 July 1891, Ct. Kayes to Ct. Superior Archinard; 1D119: ‘Rapport sur la campagne, 1890–91’.

61 Most French officials prepared monthly reports on agriculture, commerce and political affairs.

62 ANS 13G127: Podor, ‘Bulletin agricole, commercial et politique’, Aug.-Dec. 1878.

63 ANS 13G101: Dagana, 9 Nov. 1863, Ct. Dagana to the Governor; 13G102: Dagana, 17 Feb. 1864, Ct. Dagana to the Governor; 13G112: Dagana, 1 Feb. 1883, Ct. Dagana to the Governor.

64 Martin translates this passage of Umar's Rimāh in Muslim Brotherhoods, 82. He substitutes ‘migration’ for hijra in his text.

65 Willis, , In the Path of Allah, 105.Google Scholar

66 Martin, , Muslim Brotherhoods, 82Google Scholar; Robinson, , Holy War, 134Google Scholar; Willis, , In the Path of Allah, 54Google Scholar, n. 40. Martin and Willis stress Muhammadan and Uthmanian parallels well before this event, whereas Robinson cautions against such readings. See Robinson, , Holy War, 76–7, 126–7, 365–70.Google Scholar

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69 Document 8b in Hanson and Robinson, After the Jihād.

70 ANS 13G103: pièce 9.

71 ANS 13G103: Podor, 17 Feb. 1866, Ct. Podor to the Governor.

72 A full English translation appears in Hanson and Robinson, After the Jihād, Document 8c.

73 Qurʾan 4: 100.

74 ANS 13G144, pièce 131. The document is discussed in Hanson, and Robinson, , After the Jihād, 177Google Scholar. Ali ibn Umar never mentions his exact location in the letter.

75 A full English translation appears in Hanson and Robinson, After the Jihād, Document 13d.

76 To my knowledge, the French intercepted no other letters, and the Arabic materials from Nioro and Segu do not contain copies of letters sent to the Senegal valley.

77 For a sampling of letters, see ANS 13G102: Dagana, 8 July 1864, Ct. Dagana to the Governor; 13G123: Podor, 24 Dec. 1866, Ct. Dagana to the Governor; 13G131: Podor, 25 Dec. 1882, Ct. Podor to the Director of Political Affairs; 13G41: Podor, 1 Nov. 1886, Ct. Podor to the Governor.

78 In addition to the interviews cited in note 23 above, I have consulted interviews that I conducted in Nioro-du-Sahel and the surrounding villages in 1985–6 as well as additional interviews conducted by Abdoul Aziz Diallo in the villages surrounding Nioro.

79 This theme emerges most clearly in Diallo's interviews with Mamadou Alfa Diallo (see note 23 above) and in my interview with Amadou Ba on 26 Jan. 1986 at Nioro-du-Sahel, Mali.

80 Bello, Muhammad, Infaq al-maisur, 208–9Google Scholar; Delafosse, Maurice, ‘Traditions musul-manes relatives à l'origine des peuls’, Revue du Monde Musulman, XX (1912), 242–67Google Scholar; Diallo, Thierno, ‘Origine et migration des Peuls avant le XIVe siècle’, Annales de la Faculté des Lettres et Sciences Humaines de Dakar, 11 (1972)Google Scholar; Irwin, Paul, Liptako Speaks (Princeton, 1981)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Robinson, , Holy War, 81–9.Google Scholar

81 Robinson, , Holy War, 227.Google Scholar

82 ANS 13G103: Dagana, 4 Feb. 1866, Ct. Dagana to the Governor; 13G108: Dagana, ‘Bulletin agricole, commercial et politique’, Mar. 1875.

83 ANS 13G132: Podor, 1 Oct. 1886, Ct. Podor to the Governor; Mamadou Alfa Diallo, interview conducted by Abdoul Aziz Diallo in September 1979 at Gavinané, Mali.

84 ANS 13G103: Fanaye, n.d. [Sept. 1866?], Amadu Khardiatta to Ct. Dagana (Arabic, pièce 33); 13G131: Podor, 25 Dec. 1882, Ct. Podor to the Director of Political Affairs; 13G132: Podor, 1 Oct. 1886, Ct. Podor to the Governor.

85 Goody, , ‘Introduction’, in Goody, (ed.), Literacy in Traditional Societies (Cambridge, 1968)Google Scholar; idem, The Interface Between the Written and the Oral (Cambridge, 1987).

86 Clanchy, M. T., From Memory to Written Record (London, 1979).Google Scholar

87 One version of Gisse's account is held in Fonds Gaden, Cahier 16, Institut Cheikh Anta Diop in Dakar, Senegal. For a discussion of the poem, see Robinson, David, ‘Colonial politics and historical texts: the case of the Umarian narratives’ (Discussion papers in the African Humanities, African Studies Center, Boston University, no. 16, 1991)Google Scholar.

88 Robinson translates this passage in ‘Colonial politics and historical texts’, 6.

89 David Robinson's interviews with Hamady Sayande Ndiaye in February 1974 at Seno Palel, Senegal, and with Samba Bokar Seek in Apr. 1968 at Semme, Senegal, cited in Holy War, 224.

90 Kane, Mouhamed Moustapha, ‘The History of Fuuta Tooro, 1890–1920’ (Ph.D. thesis, Michigan State University, 1987).Google Scholar

91 Robinson, , Chiefs and Clerics, 82–3.Google Scholar

92 ANS 13G103: Dagana, ‘Bulletin agricole, commercial et politique’, Dec. 1868; 13G124: Podor, 13 Jan. 1869, Ct. Podor to the Governor.

93 ANS 13G103: Dagana, ‘Bulletin agricole, commercial et politique’, Dec. 1868.

94 ANS 13G104: Dagana, 19 Apr. and 10 May 1869, Ct. Dagana to the Governor.

95 ANS 13G104: Dagana, 3 Apr. 1869, Ct. Dagana to the Governor.

96 ANS 13G104: Dagana, 3 Apr. 1869, Ct. Dagana to the Governor.

97 ANS 13G104: Dagana, 30 Apr. 1869, Ct. Dagana to the Governor.

98 Robinson, , Chiefs and Clerics, 83ff.Google Scholar

99 ANS 13G145: Aéré, 21 Oct. 1869, Ct. Aéré to the Governor.

100 ANS 13G104: Dagana, ‘Bulletin agricole, commercial et politique’, May 1869.

101 ANS 13G171: Bakel, 1 Mar. 1870, testimony of Ali Aliou Senou and Tafsir Alioune (French translation of interview sessions with Ct. Bakel in the presence of an interpreter).

102 ANS 13G171: Bakel, 28 Feb. and 30 May 1871, Ct. Bakel to the Governor.

103 ANS 1D34: Gandiole, 12 Feb. 1875, telegram to the Governor

104 ANS 13G108: Dagana, n.d. [1875?], ‘Rapport sur la répression exercée sur les partisans du marabout dans le Dimar’.

105 ANS 13G109: Dagana, 3 Aug. 1877, Ct. Dagana to the Governor; Faliu,‘Les Peuls Oudabé’, first interview with Boubaker Sadio (see note 23).

106 ANS 13G108: Dagana, 29 Mar. 1875, Ct. Dagana to the Governor and Dagana, ‘Bulletin agricole, commercial et politique’, March, 1875; 13G145: Aéré, 21 Oct. 1869, Ct. Aéré to the Governor and 13G127: Podor, 18 Mar. 1878, Ct. Podor to the Governor.

107 ANS 13G109: Dagana, ‘Bulletin agricole, commercial et politique’, Jan., Feb., Mar. 1878; Faliu, ‘Les Peuls Oudabé’; first interview with Boubakar Sadio.

108 ANS 2B75: St. Louis, 11 Apr. 1885, Governor to the Minister; 13G101: Dagana, 22 Feb. and 27 Sept. 1862, Ct. Dagana to the Governor; Robinson, , Chiefs and Clerics, 136–7.Google Scholar

109 ANS 13G41: St. Louis, 6 Mar. 1878, to Director of Political Affairs(?).

110 ANS 13G109: Dagana, ‘Bulletin agricole, commercial et politique’, Jan., Feb., Mar. 1878.

111 ANS 13G127: Podor, 14 Mar. 1878, Ct. Podor to Ct. Bakel; Podor, ‘Bulletin agricole, commercial et politique’, Nov. 1878; 13G145: Aéré, ‘Bulletin agricole, commercial et politique’, Nov. 1878.

112 Renault, L'Abolition de l'esclavage.

113 The information was published monthly in Le Moniteur du Senegal et Dépendences.

114 ANF SOM SEN, XIV, 17: St. Louis, 27 Sept. 1892, interim Governor to the Minister, quoted in Renault, , L'Abolition de l'esclavage, 37Google Scholar, n 2.

115 This estimate is based on the Governor's reference to the numbers of emancipations in selected months of 1881–2. See ANS 2B74: St. Louis, 20 Apr., 20 June and 20 July 1882, Governor to the Minister.

116 Echenberg, Myron, Colonial Conscripts: The Tirailleurs Sénégalais in French West Africa, 1857–1960 (Portsmouth, N.H., 1991).Google Scholar

117 For example, the commandant at Podor noted that, at a meeting with all the major Fulbe leaders of Toro province, the response to his question about the reasons for migration was unanimous: ‘the liberation of slaves, the eternal argument of those who wish to explain their fanaticism’ (emphasis in the original). ANS 13G41: Podor, 15 Dec. 1886, Ct. Podor to the Governor.

118 ANS 13G111: Dagana, 1 Aug. 1881, Ct. Dagana to the Governor.

119 ANS 13G112: Dagana, 1 Apr. 1883, Ct. Dagana to the Governor.

120 ANS 13G132: Podor, 16 Apr. 1885, Ct. Podor to the Governor.

121 ANS 13G185: Bakel, ‘Copie du registre journal de poste’, May 1885.

122 ANS 13G132: Podor, ‘Rapport politique’, Jan. 1885; 1D117: Bandiougoula, 12 Jan. 1891, Ruault to Colonel Archinard; Faliu, ‘Les Peuls Oudabé’, first interview with Boubaker Sadio.

123 ANM 1E207: Medine, 1 May 1886, Ct. Medine to Ct. Cercles; ANS 13G41: Richard Toll, 12 Mar. 1886, Captain to Governor.

124 ANS 13G132: Aéré, 8 Jan. 1886, Ct. Aéré to the Governor; 1D95: ‘Rapport sur la campagne, 1888–89’; 1D105: ‘Rapport sur la campagne, 1889–90’.

125 ANS 13G41: St. Louis, 24 Aug. 1886, Director of Political Affairs to the Governor; Podor, 12 Sept. 1886, Ct. Podor to the Director of Political Affairs; Podor, n.d., Ct. Podor to Director of Political Affairs (pièce 140).

126 ANS 13G41: Podor, 1 Nov. 1886, Ct. Podor to the Governor, and Podor, n.d., Ct. Podor to the Governor (pièce 140).

127 ANS 13G113: Dagana, 7 Apr. and 17 June 1885, Ct. Dagana to the Director of Political Affairs.

128 ANS 13G41: ‘Circulaire’ of 13 Apr. 1887.

129 ANS 13G41: Podor, 3 July 1886, Ct. Podor to the Governor (copy).

130 ANF SOM SEN, 1, 80b: St. Louis, 6 Feb. 1889, Governor to the Minister; ANS K12: St. Louis, 18 Dec. 1889, Governor to the Minister (draft).