1 Northern Nigeria as used in this article is a political term rather than a geographical one. It refers to the former Protectorate of Northern Nigeria which came into existence on 1 January 1900. This territory was amalgamated with the Protectorate of Southern Nigeria and Lagos Colony on 1 January 1914 to form the present Federal Republic of Nigeria. After the amalgamation, the area formerly known as the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria became the northern provinces until 1945 when it became the Northern Region. From 1900 to 1967 northern Nigeria was administered as one unit. However, in 1967 the area was divided into states.

2 Hubbard, J. H., ‘Education under colonial rule: A history of Katsina College, 1921–42’ (unpublished Ph.D thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1973), 192.Google Scholar

3 See ibid, and Coleman, J. S. (ed.), Educational and Political Development (Princeton, 1968), 138–9.Google Scholar

4 Ozigi, A. and Ocho, L., Education in Northern Nigeria (London, 1981), 41.Google Scholar

5 Ibid. 40–41.

6 Hull, R. W., ‘The development of administration in Katsina Emirate, Northern Nigeria, 1887–1944’ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Columbia University, 1968), 351–353Google Scholar; Boyan, D. R., ‘Educational Policy Formulation in the North of Nigeria, 1900–1969’ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1979), 110–122, 177Google Scholar; and Heussler, R., The British in Northern Nigeria (London, 1968), 189.Google Scholar

7 Heussler, , British, 189.Google Scholar

8 Williams, D. H., A Short Survey of Education in Northern Nigeria (Kaduna, 1959), 7.Google Scholar

9 Gbadamosi, G. O., ‘The establishment of Western education among Muslims in Nigeria’, J. Hist. Soc. Nigeria, IV, i (1967), 102.Google Scholar

10 Ubah, C. N., ‘Problems of Christian missionaries in the Muslim emirates of Nigeria, 1900–1928’, J. Afr. Studies, III, iii (1976), 362–365.Google Scholar

11 Ibid., 352.

12 See Tibenderana, P. K., The Development of Western Education in the Northern Provinces of Nigeria, 1907–1960 (London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, in preparation).Google Scholar

13 See Lugard, F. D., Political Memoranda 1913–1918 (London, 1919), 296–318Google Scholar; and Temple, C. L., Native Races and their Rulers (Cape Town, 1918), 29–79.Google Scholar

14 See Temple, C. L., Native, 29–79Google Scholar; and Lugard, F. D., Political, 296–318.Google Scholar

15 See Nicolson, I. F., The Administration of Nigeria 1900–1960 (Oxford, 1969)Google Scholar; and Heussler, R., British.Google Scholar

16 Among the emirs who suffered this fate during 1910–1946 was Muhammad Tambari, the Sultan of Sokoto (1924–1931). For a clearer exposition of the circumstances which led to Sultan Tambari's deposition see Tibenderana, P. K., ‘The making and unmaking of the Sultan of Sokoto, Muhammadu Tambari, 1922–1931’, J. Hist. Soc. Nigeria, IX, i (1977), 91–134Google Scholar

17 On the emirs' terms of appointment see Lugard, F. D., ‘Specimen translation of Sultan Attahiru's letter of appointment’, 22 March 1903Google Scholar, Rhodes House Library, Oxford, MSS. Brit. Emp. S. 77. Throughout the period covered by this article emir's letters of appointment contained conditions of service similar to those embodied in Sultan Attahiru's letter of appointment. See, for instance, Lugard, F. D., ‘Specimen translation of Suleiman's letter of appointment’, 7 September 1915Google Scholar, Nigerian National Archives Kaduna (hereafter N.N.A.K.), Sokprof. 3/1/C.7.

18 On the powers of the Residents over the expenditure of the native administrations see F. D. Lugard to A. B. Law, Lagos, 28 February 1916, C.O. 583/46. One of Temple's proposals, which was adopted as government policy, was that since the native administration could not exert the discretionary powers in financial matters granted to them without the consent of the Resident, the latter would be held personally responsible for the proper use of all native administration funds. The Residents usually invoked this axiom to repel emirs' budgetary proposals if they did not favour them.

19 On the powers of the Lieutenant-Governor (Chief Commissioner) over the budgets of the native administrations see Secretary, Northern Provinces (hereafter S.N.P.), Financial Memoranda for Guidance in Native Treasuries (Kaduna, 1930).Google Scholar For instance on p. 7 of this document Residents were required to submit all the proposals involving new items of expenditure or increased expenditure under the existing items to the Lieutenant-Governor for his consideration and approval before they were embodied in the estimates.

20 E. J. Arnett to S.N.P., Sokoto, 24 February 1917, N.N.A.K., S.N.P. 8/4/20/1917.

21 H. M. Goldsmith to E. J. Arnett, Kaduna, 9 March 1917, N.N.A.K., S.N.P. 8/4/20/1917.

22 I am greatly indebted to Alhaji Haruna, the emir of Gwandu since 1954, for this assessment. Oral testimony, when interviewed by the author, Birnin Kebbi, 10 March 1972.

23 Emir Aliyu was a member of the Malawa dynasty, founded by Malam Musa, the first Fulani emir of Zaria (1804–1821). There are three other dynasties of the ruling house of Zaria namely Barnawa, Katsinawa and Sulibawa.

24 Cited in Sir Hugh Clifford to Lord Milner, Lagos, 25 June 1920, C.O. 583/89.

25 On the reasons why Sultan Muhammad Tambari was in the end not succeeded by one of his sons see Tibenderana, , ‘Making’, 110–134.Google Scholar

26 For a clearer exposition of the election of Sultan Muhammad Tambari see op. cit. 91–101.

27 The information on the emirs and chiefs in this section was gleaned from Northern Regional Government, Illustrated Biographies of Members of Northern Regional Legislature (Kaduna, 1952), 18–42.Google Scholar I should like to thank Dr Muhammad Tukur of the Department of History, Ahmadu Bello University, for bringing to my attention the existence of this work.

28 See Hubbard, , ‘Education’, 191–199.Google Scholar

29 In 1907 the chiefs' sons' school of Sokoto had an enrolment of 36 pupils. They were all sons of the nobility. For a general discussion on the introduction of Western education in the former Sokoto province see Tibenderana, P. K., ‘The administration of Sokoto, Gvvandu and Argungu emirates under British rule, 1900–1946’ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Ibadan, 1974), 384–410.Google Scholar

30 See Hubbard, , ‘Education’, 295–399.Google Scholar

31 Heussler, , British, 120.Google Scholar

32 See Resident of Ilorin to S.N.P., Ilorin, 6 September 1937, N.N.A.K., Kadmineduc. 4/2/D.D.N. 1658/3319/9.

33 See S.N.P., ‘Summary of the proceedings of the Conference of Chiefs’, 1038, N.N.A.K., C.R.F. 1/1/1938.

34 See S.N.P. to Residents, Kaduna, 10 August 1937, N.N.A.K., Kadmineduc. 4/2/D.D.N. 1657/28961/2.

35 The proposal to establish a princes' middle school at Kaduna was approved by the Governor in 1938. The school was scheduled to commence in 1939, but it did not commence as scheduled due to the shortage of funds. The scheme remained in abeyance until the late 1940s when it was finally abandoned.

36 See S.N.P., ‘Summary of the proceedings of the conference of Chiefs’, 1943Google Scholar, N.N.A.K., C.F.R.1/1/1943.

37 On the attitude of British political officers to missionary enterprise, including education, see Ayandele, E. A., The Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria 1842–1914 (London, 1966), 139–152Google Scholar; and Graham, S. F., Government and Mission Education in Northern Nigeria 1900–1919 (Ibadan, 1966), 32–97.Google Scholar

38 This conclusion is based on information provided by Sir Bryan Sharwood Smith, the former Governor of northern Nigeria (1952–1957). Personal communication from Sir Bryan Sharwood-Smith, Bexhill-on-Sea, 3 August 1971.

39 See Ayandele, , Missionary, 127–146Google Scholar; and Miller, W. R., Have We Failed in Nigeria? (London, 1947).Google Scholar

40 Dr W. R. Miller was for many years the leader of the Church Missionary Society Hausa mission based at Zaria.

41 See Ayandele, , Missionary, 144.Google Scholar

42 Cited in op. cit. 145. All the italics are in the original quotation.

43 Sir Hugh Clifford to Lord Milner, Lagos, 21 October 1920, encl. Extract from a letter addressed to the Governor by the Bishop of Lagos, 17 May 1920, N.N.A.K., S.N.P. 8/7/80/1920.

44 Personal communication from Sharwood-Smith, Sir Bryan, Bexhill-on-Sea, 3 August 1971Google Scholar; and Weatherhead, Sir Arthur, Amberley Court, Stroud, 12 August 1971.Google ScholarArthur, Sir was the Deputy Governor of northern Nigeria 1958–1960.Google Scholar Before this appointment he had served in many provinces as a Resident.

45 Personal communication from Sharwood-Smith, Sir Bryan, Bexhill-on-Sea, 3 August 1971Google Scholar; and Weatherhead, Sir Arthur, Amberley Court, Stroud, 12 August 1971.Google Scholar

46 See Temple, , Native, 213–217Google Scholar; and Ubah, , ‘Problems’, 368–371.Google Scholar

47 Temple, , Native, 215.Google Scholar

48 Missionary enterprise was first introduced in Sokoto emirate in 1935. The Roman Catholic Mission and the Church Missionary Society were the first to establish stations in Sokoto town in 1935.

49 Commander Carrow, J. H., oral testimony, when interviewed by the author, Weymouth, 23 September 1971.Google Scholar Carrow was the Resident of Sokoto 1934–1942.

50 See Crampton, E. P. T., Christianity in Northern Nigeria (Zaria, 1975), 64–67.Google Scholar

51 Graham, , Government, 48–51.Google Scholar

52 See H. R. Palmer to Governor, Kaduna, 6 October 1928, N.N.A.K., S.N.P. 9/3/217/1928.

53 See Ali, A. Y., The Holy Qu'ran: Text, Translation and Commentary (Beirut, 1968)Google Scholar, sura 29, verses 46 and 47.

54 Adams, Sir Theodore S., ‘Comments on the proposed ten-year educational development plan for Nigeria’, 1942Google Scholar, N.N.A.K.; Kadmineduc. 4/2D.D.N.2039A.

55 Ozigi, and Ocho, , Education, 31.Google Scholar

56 S.N.P. to Chief Secretary to the Government, Kaduna, 27 July 1933, N.N.A.K., S.N.P. 17/2/11133/1.

57 On G. J. Lethem's views on the development of girls' education in northern Nigeria see S.N.P. to Chief Secretary to the Government, Kaduna, 27 July 1933, N.N.A.K., S.N.P. 17/2/11133/1.

58 S.N.P., ‘Extract from an account of a visit to Lagos by the Sultan of Sokoto and the emir of Gwandu’, June 1933Google Scholar, N.N.A.K., Sokprof. 3/2/574/1.

59 Sultan Hassan and Emir Usman were quite aware of the British administration's policy to discourage Nigerian teachers trained outside northern Nigeria from teaching in native administration schools for fear that they would have ‘detribalizing’ effects on the pupils.

60 The payment of the salaries of European staff of the Nigerian Government and its agencies was generally the responsibility of the government. But because of the economic depression of the 1930s the Nigerian Government suffered a sharp fall in revenue and had to embark on retrenchment of European staff in order to make ends meet. Accordingly, Sokoto and Gwandu native administrations were allowed to pay the salaries of the two European women teachers in charge of their schools because, as Mr Lethem put it, ‘the government could not object to Native Administrations putting up the money to pay for European mistresses' salaries where there was a genuine desire to do so’. G. J. Lethem to E. J. Hussey, Kaduna, 30 May 1933, N.N.A.K., Sokprof. 3/2/4388.

61 Although the Sultan of Sokoto and the emir of Gwandu succumbed to British pressure to allow girls to attend boys' elementary schools in their emirates, they still insisted that girls in such schools should be taught in separate classrooms. However in 1939 separate classrooms for girls in elementary schools were abolished throughout northern Nigeria except in Sokoto emirate. This measure was extended to Sokoto emirate during the late 1940s.

62 These figures are extracted from A. Booker to Education Officers, Sokoto, 15 April 1940, N.N.A.K., Kadmineduc. 4/12/D.D.N. 883/1.

63 See Booker, A. to Assistant Director of Education, Sokoto, 21 September 1936Google Scholar, N.N.A.K., Kadmineduc. 4/12/D.D.N. 883/1.

64 Shallwood, J. M. to Resident of Bornu, Potiskum, 3 June 1934Google Scholar, N.N.A.K., Kadmineduc. 1/1/D.E.N. 982.

65 J. H. Carrow, oral testimony, when interviewed by the author, Weymouth, 23 September 1971. Also cited in Tibenderana, , ‘Administration’, 410–411.Google Scholar

66 See Hubbard, , ‘Education’, 192.Google Scholar

67 S.N.P. to Director of Education, Kaduna, 8 April 1918, N.N.A.K., S.N.P. 9/5/3721/1918.

68 See F. M. Noard to S.N.P., Zaria, 10 February 1943, N.N.A.K., Provincial Office, Zaria.

69 S.N.P., ‘Summary of proceedings of the Conference of Chiefs, 1943’, N.N.A.K., C.F.R. 1/1/1943.

70 See Hull, , ‘Development’, 353Google Scholar; and Boyan, , ‘Educational’, 110–122.Google Scholar

71 In 1920 Sir Hugh Clifford wrote to the Secretary of State for the Colonies to request powers to accelerate educational development in northern Nigeria. He complained to the Secretary of State for the Colonies that the object of the British administration in northern Nigeria at the time was solely the maintenance of the status quo, the perpetuation of more or less medieval conditions by the aid of every natural and artificial means, the staving off of innovations including education and the preservation of the intellectual and material standards of the people. Sir Hugh Clifford to Lord Milner, Lagos, 25 June 1920, C.O. 583/89.

72 Read, Sir H., ‘Minute on Sir Hugh Clifford's despatch to Lord Milner, 25 June 1920’, 1920, C.O. 583/96.Google Scholar

73 Amery, L. S. to Clifford, Sir Hugh, London, 29 March 1921, C.O. 583/89.Google Scholar