Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T00:47:38.413Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Djibo Bakary, the French, and the referendum of 1958 in Niger

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 January 2009

Finn Fuglestad
Finn Fuglestad
Affiliation:
Stavanger
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

This article concentrates on the events of 1958 in Niger. It tries to show that Djibo Bakary's power-base was a very weak one. This could be the reason why Djibo decided to opt for ‘No’ at the Referendum, namely that he needed command of the whole state machinery in order to crush his enemies, especially the chiefs. The French were bent on thwarting Djibo for geo-political reasons (e.g. the nearness of Algeria), but did so in a rather lighthanded way. In fact, Djibo brought about his own downfall through a number of miscalculations and blunders.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of African History , Volume 14 , Issue 2 , April 1973 , pp. 313 - 330
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1973

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Brilliant but not always accurate journalistic accounts are to be found in Chaffard, Georges, Histoire secrète de la Décolonisation, 11 (Calmann-Lévy, Paris, 1967),Google Scholar and in Mortimer, Edward, France and the Africans 1944–60 (Faber and Faber Ltd., London, 1969). The author wishes to thank, among others, Michael Gerrard and J. D. Fage for help with his English text.Google Scholar

2 Saint-Marc, Michèle, Décolonisation et zone franc (SEDES, Paris, 1964), 19.Google Scholar

3 The main bulk of information used in this article originates, where not otherwise stated, from interviews. These interviews were granted the author on the understanding that it would not be possible to trace any relevant information back to the man it came from. This is because the referendum of 1958 is still a ‘hot’ issue in Niger.Google ScholarMy sample comprises 16 Frenchmen who actually lived in Niger during and immediately before or after the referendum, namely zo Colonial Administrators (‘Administrateurs de la France d'Outre-Mer’), 3 Teachers, 2 Businessmen, and 1 Catholic priest.Google ScholarMy sample of Africans comprises 34 persons: 16 Hausas, II Zerma/Sonrais, and 7 /others/ (Fulanis, Kanuris, Mossis). Their background may be summarized in the following table: Of the 14 Africans mentioned in the article, 6 have been interviewed; of the 13 Europeans, 8. (Notable exceptions: de Gaulle, Houphouët-Boigny, Senghor and Djibo Bakary.)Google Scholar

4 According to my own calculations, there were by 1945 some 2,000 former William Ponty pupils in West Africa. Only about 60 of these came from Niger.Google Scholar

5 ‘Territoire du Niger. Rapport Politique, année 1951’, 62 (AP. Dosso). Abbreviations: AP: Archives of the ‘Préfecture’ of… ASP: Archives of the ‘Sous-Préfecture’ of… APR: Archives, Presidency of the Republic, Niamey.Google Scholar

6 For politics in the Ivory Coast, see Morgenthau, Ruth chachter, Political Parties in French-speaking West Africa (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1964).Google Scholar

7 In 1964 the Hausas numbered 1,500,000 and the Zerma/Sonrais 60,000 out of a total population of 3,200,000. See Donaint, Pierre, Le Niger; Cours de géographie (Ministére de l'Education nationale, Niamey), 148.Google Scholar

8 Governor of Niger, 1942–52 and 1953–5.Google Scholar

9 See interventions by Diori, Hamani and Konaté, M. in the French National Assembly 30 July 1949 and 21 August 1951.Google Scholar

10 See note 5.Google Scholar

11 Morgenthau, Ruth Schachter, ‘Single-Party Systems in West Africa’, American Political Science Review, LV, no. 2 (06 1961), 294–307.Google Scholar

12 “Territ. du Niger. Rapp. po1. 1951’, 12–14.Google Scholar

13 On the new party's programme, see ‘Procès-Verbal de l'Assemblèe Générale Constituante de l'U.D.N. Comité Regional de Zinder’, Zinder, 18 May 1954 2 (Zinder, AP.), and Le Démocrate (organ of the UDN) of 17 Nov. 1956.Google Scholar

14 Fonds d'Investissement et de Développement Economique et Social.Google Scholar

15 For an account of the trade union situation in 1954, see Galinier, René, ‘Rapport Annuel, Cercle de Zinder, année 1954’, 49–70 (AP. Zinder).Google Scholar

16 ‘Territ. Niger, du. Rapp. pol. année 1953’, 54(AP. Zinder).Google Scholar

17 ‘Territ. du Niger. Rapp. pol. année 1952’, 45 (AP. Zinder).Google Scholar

18 See, for example, ‘Lettre du Commissaire de Police de Maradi à M. le Chef des Services de Police du Niger–3 (AP. Maradi).Google Scholar For the role of the ‘free women’ see Piault, Colette, Contribution à l'étude de la vie quotidienne de la femme mannri, Etudes Nigériennes, no. 10 (IFAN/CNRS-Niamey/Paris, no date), 111.Google Scholar

19 See Doumesche, Nicolas, Mouché,Etude socio-économique de deux villages Hausas, Etudes Nigériennes, no. 22 (IFAN/CNRS-Niamey/Paris, 1968), 98.Google Scholar

20 ‘Territ. du Niger. Rapp. écon. année 38–9 (Centre de Documentation, Cornmissariat Général du Développement, Niamey).

21 Before the introduction of general suffrage in 1956, Niger had 312,558 voters out of 2,326,000 inhabitants. See Holleaux, A., ‘Les élections aux Assemblées des T.O.M.’, Révue Juridique et Politique de l'Union Francaise (1956).Google Scholar

22 In 1953 Niger possessed one factory, that produced 200 tons of ground-nut oil (Journal Officielde la République Francaise, At'it et Rapports du Conseil Economique et Social, 26 Mar. 1953). Regarding schools, these were in 1954 attended by some 7,703 pupils, that is 1·5 per cent of the population eligible for education (Jean Ramadier, ‘Discours prononcé a la séance d'ouverture de la session ordinaire de l'Assemblée Territoriale du Niger’, Niamey, 29 Mar. 1955 (ASP. Magaria)).Google Scholar Moreover, Toby was not even capable of absorbing all the FIDES credits Niger was allocated (Ramadier, Ibid. 4). Of the FIDES credits, of which Niger had received 322 million francs from 1949 to 1954, 36 millions had not been used (‘Procès-Vcrbai de la Conférence des Commandants de Cercle’, Niamey, 20–5 Apr. 1955, 10 (ASP. Madaoua)).

23 In 1955–6 Ramadier, according to himself, was able to wrest out of the FIDES 1,450 millions instead of the 835 millions initially envisaged (Ramadier, op. cit. ).Google Scholar

24 Boubou Hama, ‘Ramadier est le père du socialisme dans ce pays’ (‘Procès-Verbal des délibérations de l'Assemblée Territoriale du Niger. Séance du 18 May 1957’) (ASP. Magaria). Djibo on the contrary accused Ramadier of having rescued the PPN/RDA from total oblivion. See ‘Rapport Général, Congrés du MSA les 6 juillet et 8 mai 1957’ cited in ‘Synthèse Mensuelle, Direction des Services de Police du Niger’ (henceforth SM. Police), Niamey, 31 May 1957, 8. (This periodical, only destined for the French Administration, is to be found in most archives in Niger).Google Scholar

25 SM. Police, Nov. 1956, 3–10.Google Scholar

26 Global results published in Niger-Information (Government newspaper), Niamey, 20 Jan 1956, 2–3.Google Scholar

27 SM. Police, 28 Jan. 1956, 3.Google Scholar

28 ‘Note d'Information. Direction des Services de Police’, Niamey, 31 Oct. 1956 (ASP. Gaya).Google Scholar

29 The MSA took 64·28 per cent of the votes, the PPN/RDA 30·57 per cent. The remaining 5·13 per cent went to independent candidates in the far east (Cerde of N'Guigmi, where the independents took 57 per cent of the vote) and in the north (Cercie of Agadès). The MSA had its highest scores in the Hausa cercles of Tahoua (86·81 per cent) and Madaoua (83·83 per cent), the PPN/RDA in the Hausa but western cercle of Dogondoutchi (79·34 per cent) and in the Zerma/Sonrai cercles of Tillabéry (73·14 per cent) and Dosso (63·70 per cent). See Bureau des Affaires Politiques et Administratives, ‘Résultat des élections du 30 Mar. 1957’ (ASP. Magaria).Google Scholar

30 There was no Prime Minister, the Governor being legally the Head of Government.Google Scholar

31 From 1954 to 1954 the sale of groundnuts from the Cercle of Zinder soared from 10,196 to 30,000 tons (René Galinier, ‘Cercie de Zinder, Rapport Annuel 1953’, 2 (AP. Zinder)). Nationwide the ground-nut production soared from 76,190 tons in 1953 to 193,000 in 1957, of which 92 per cent came out of Hausaland. See Ministère de l'Economie Rurale, Service de l'Agriculture, ‘Rapport Annuel, année 1961, Ière partie, Statistiques’, 3 (AP. Zinder) and B.C.E.A.O., L'Economie Ouest-Africaine, no. 137, Feb. 1967.Google Scholar

32 ‘Compte-rendu de la séanc du Conseil des Notables du Cercie de Maradi, le II juillet 1953’, 4–6 (Ap. Maradi).Google Scholar

33 See, for instance, Noël Julien-Viéroz, ‘Rapport sur le déroulement de la campagne électorale et des élections législatives du 2.1.1956 clans la Subdivision Centrale de Tahoua’, Tahoua, 6 Jan. 1956, 1–2 (ASP. Birni N'Konni).Google Scholar

34 See, for instance, Falgueirettes, P., ‘Lettre du Commandant de Cercie, Konni, à M. le Gouverneur’, Konni, 15 Nov. 1956 (ASP. Bimi N'Konni).Google Scholar

35 ‘Territ. du Niger. Révue des événements du Jer Trimestre 1954’ 19 (AP. Zmder).Google Scholar

36 SM. Police, 24 June 1957, 3.Google Scholar

37 ‘Territoire du Soudan Français. Délégation de la Boucle du Niger. Bulletin Mensuel de Renseignements’, Gao, 14 Nov. 1957, 4–8 (ASP. Tillabéry).Google Scholar

38 SM. Police, 24 Nov. 1957, 12–15.Google Scholar

39 SM. Police, Nov. 1957. 12–15.Google Scholar

40 SM. Police, Feb. 1958, 2.Google Scholar

41 See Afrique nouvelle (newspaper, Dakar), 1 Aug. 1958.Google Scholar

42 See, for instance, Azalai, organe du MSA (mimeographed newspaper, Niamey), 9 Apr. 1958 (ASP. Tessaoua).Google Scholar

43 Abraham, R. C., Dictionary of the Hausa language (University of London Press, 1968), 79.Google Scholar

44 Berg, Elliott, ‘The Economic Basis for Political Choice in French West Africa’, American Political Science Review, LIV, no. 2 (06 1960), 391–405 (p. 403).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

45 In 1955, 635 francs in all per capita, as compared with 415 in Senegal and 303 in Mauritania (‘PV de la Conference des Commandants de Cercie’, op. cit. 7).Google Scholar

46 Chaffard and Mortimer, op. cit.Google Scholar

47 See Whitaker, C. S. Jr, The Politics of Traditicm. Continuity and Change in Northern Nigeria, 1946–66 (Princeton University Press, 1970).Google Scholar

48 SM. Police, 27 Mar. 1958, 15.Google Scholar

49 Lettre du Sawaba au Général de Gaulle’, Niamey, 15 Sept. 1958 (ASP. Tessaoua).Google Scholar

50 Le Monde, 17 Sept 1958, 3.Google Scholar

51 Le Monde, 31 Aug.-1 Sept. 1958, 2.Google Scholar

52 Afrique nouvelle, 19 Sept. 1958, 3.Google Scholar

53 Mortimer op.cit. 321.Google Scholar

54 Afrique nouvelle, 19 Sept. 1958, 3.Google Scholar

55 On the O.C.R.S. see Chailley, Marcel, Histoire de I'Afrique Occidentale Française (Berger-Levrault, Paris, 1968), 494–6.Google Scholar

56 ‘Rapport Général Congrès du MSA. …’, op. cit. 5.Google Scholar

57 Niger (Révue trimestrielle, Niamey), no. 10 (1970), 64.Google Scholar

58 Chaffard, op. cit. 277.Google Scholar

59 Ibid. 278–302, and Mortimer, op. cit. 322–4, 343.

60 See, for example, ‘Fiche de renseignement, Cercle de Gouré’, 1 Nov. 1958 (Military archives of Zinder).Google Scholar

61 Le Monde, 17 Sept. 1958, 3.Google Scholar

62 See, for instance, ‘Rapport sur le comportement des européens du Cercle de Tessaoua pendant le Referendum’, no date, 3–4 (ASP. Tessaoua).Google Scholar

63 ‘Lettre, Commandant, Cercle de Tessaoua à M. le Chef du Territoire du Niger’, Tessaoua, 1 Oct. 1958, a (ASP. Tessaoua). This information has been confirmed by many oral sources.Google Scholar

64 See Rash, Yehoshua, ‘Un établissement colonial sans histoires. Les premières années françaises au Niger 1897–1906’ (unpublished doctoral thesis, Paris, 01 1972).Google Scholar

65 Chaffard, op. cit. 294 and oral sources.Google Scholar

66 Marches tropicaux, 10 May 1958.Google Scholar

67 ‘Cercle de Tessaoua. Rapport Annuel 1958’, 24 (AP. Zinder).Google Scholar

68 Chailley, op. cit. 507.Google Scholar

69 Communiqué du Parti Sawaba, Section Nigérienne du P.R.A.’. 6 Oct. 1958 (ASP. Tessaoua).Google Scholar

70 Le Monde, 21 Nov. 1958, 3.Google Scholar

71 Colombani, Don Jean, ‘Circulaire à tous mes Commandants et Chefs de Subdivision’, Niamey, 23 Nov. 1958 (ASP. Gaya).Google Scholar

72 ‘Télégramme-Lettre du Gouverneur au Chef de la Subdivision de Gaya’, Niarney, 2 Dec. 1958 (ASP. Gaya).Google Scholar

73 Complete results from the elections in ‘Haut Commissariat de la République Française au Niger. Circulaire à tous Cercies et Subdivisions’, Niamey, 22 Dec. 1958 (ASP. Tillabéry).Google Scholar