Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-j824f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T05:40:37.276Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

DEVELOPMENT, POLITICS, AND THE CENTRALIZATION OF STATE POWER IN LESOTHO, 1960–75*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 September 2014

John Aerni-Flessner*
Affiliation:
Michigan State University

Abstract

The rhetoric of development served as a language for Sotho politicians from 1960–70 to debate the meanings of political participation. The relative paucity of aid in this period gave outsized importance to small projects run in rural villages, and stood in stark contrast to the period from the mid-1970s onwards when aid became an ‘anti-politics machine’ that worked to undermine national sovereignty. Examination of the democratic period in Lesotho from 1966–70 helps explain the process by which newly independent states gave up some of their recently won sovereignty, and how a turn to authoritarianism helped contribute to this process.

Type
Economics and Governance
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

Funding for this research was provided in part by the Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Dissertation Research Abroad Fellowship program, the SUNY Cortland History Department, the International Seminar on Decolonization, and a grant from the Faculty Research Program at SUNY Cortland. Previous versions of this article were presented at the African Studies Association Meeting and the North Eastern Workshop on Southern Africa, as well as the 2013 International Seminar on Decolonization in Washington, DC. This article is stronger for all the feedback in these venues, as well as for the close read by the anonymous reviewers of The Journal of African History. Author's email: [email protected]

References

1 Lancaster, C., United States and Africa: Into the Twenty-First Century (Washington, DC, 1993), 11Google Scholar; ‘Chief Leabua Jonathan's press conference’, Basutoland News (Ladybrand), 7 May 1965, 1.

2 Jack Halpern called Lesotho (along with Swaziland and Botswana) a ‘hostage’. See Halpern, J., South Africa's Hostages: Basutoland, Bechuanaland and Swaziland (Baltimore, 1965)Google Scholar.

3 The National Archives of the United Kingdom, Kew (TNA) Colonial Office (CO) 1048/892, Basutoland: Final Report Before Independence, British Government Representative to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 3 Oct. 1966.

4 Ferguson, J., The Anti-Politics Machine: ‘Development’, Depoliticization, and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho (Cambridge, 1990), xvGoogle Scholar.

5 United States National Archives, College Park, Marlyand (NACP) Record Group (RG) 286 USAID, Central Subject Files 1968–73, Bureau for Africa, Office for Southern Africa Regional Coordination, Box 5, Folder Assistance Plans, Annual Report Special Self-Help Report, 21 July 1969.

6 Darwin, J., ‘Decolonization and the end of empire’, in Winks, R. (ed.), The Oxford History of the British Empire, Volume V: Historiography (New York, 2001), 556Google Scholar.

7 Ritchie, D. A., Doing Oral History (New York, 1995), 1213Google Scholar.

8 Interview with Mohlalefi Moteane, Maseru, 27 May 2009.

9 TNA Ministry of Overseas Development (OD) 31/371, British Aid to Lesotho 1971/72 and 1972/73; Khaketla, B. M., Lesotho 1970: An African Coup Under the Microscope (London, 1971), 120Google Scholar.

10 Most in Lesotho refer to the time as Qomatsi, or the State of Emergency. It can refer explicitly to 1970 or more broadly to the period of unrest up to the failed 1974 BCP coup attempt.

11 Amin, J. A., ‘Serving in Africa: US Peace Corps in Cameroon’, Afrika Spectrum, 48:1 (2013) 7187Google Scholar; Amin, J. A.United States Peace Corps volunteers in Guinea: a case study of US-African relations during the Cold War’, Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 16:2 (1998), 197226CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Fischer, F., Making Them Like Us: Peace Corps Volunteers in the 1960s (Washington, DC, 1998)Google Scholar; Meisler, S., When the World Calls: The Inside Story of the Peace Corps and Its First Fifty Years (Boston, 2011)Google Scholar; Zimmerman, J., ‘Beyond double consciousness: black Peace Corps volunteers in Africa, 1961–1971’, Journal of American History, 82:3 (1995), 9991028CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12 Isaacman, A. and Isaacman, B., Dams, Displacement, and the Delusion of Development: Cahora Bassa and its Legacies in Mozambique, 1965–2007 (Athens, OH, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Monson, J., Africa's Freedom Railway: How a Chinese Development Project Changed Lives and Livelihoods in Tanzania (Bloomington, IN, 2009)Google Scholar; Scott, J. C., Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, CT, 1988)Google Scholar.

13 Lal, P., ‘Self-reliance and the state: the multiple meanings of development in early post-colonial Tanzania’, Africa, 82:2 (2012), 230CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Jones, B., Beyond the State in Rural Uganda (Edinburgh, 2008), 10CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

14 Ferguson, Anti-Politics.

15 See Wainwright, J., Decolonizing Development: Colonial Power and the Maya (Malden, MA, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

16 K. Matlosa, ‘Aid, development and democracy in Lesotho, 1966–1996’ (unpublished paper, Centre for Southern African Studies, University of Western Cape, 1999), 7.

17 Ferguson, Anti-Politics, xiv.

18 World Bank Country Report on Lesotho (1975), quoted in Ferguson, Anti-Politics, 25.

19 Murray, C. and Sanders, P., Medicine Murder in Colonial Lesotho: The Anatomy of a Moral Crisis (Edinburgh, 2005), 1619CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20 Showers, K. B., Imperial Gullies: Soil Erosion and Conservation in Lesotho (Athens, OH, 2005), 155Google Scholar.

21 Ibid. 175.

22 TNA Records of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) 141-887, Subversive Organizations, memo from District Commissioner Butha Buthe to Resident Commissioner Maseru, 2 May 1952.

23 Wet, C. J. de, Moving Together, Drifting Apart: Betterment Planning and Villagisation in a South African Homeland (Johannesburg, 1995)Google Scholar; Showers, Gullies, 178.

24 Thabane, M., ‘Aspects of colonial economy and society, 1868–1966’, in Pule, N. and Thabane, M. (eds.), Essays on Aspects of the Political Economy of Lesotho, 1500–2000 (Roma, Lesotho, 2002), 118Google Scholar; Showers, Gullies, 227.

25 TNA FCO 141-181, Elias Monare Case, letter from District Commissioner Mohale's Hoek to Resident Commissioner Maseru, 26 Apr. 1961.

26 Showers, Gullies, 59.

27 Ngqaleni, M., ‘A review of Lesotho's agricultural policies and strategies for the 1990s’, in Santho, S. and Sejanamane, M. (eds.), Southern Africa After Apartheid: Prospects for the Inner Periphery in the 1990s (Harare, 1991), 130–2Google Scholar.

28 Hodge, J. M., ‘British colonial expertise, post-colonial careering and the early history of international development’, Journal of Modern European History, 8:1 (2010), 2446CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

29 Machobane, J. J. and Berold, R., Drive Out Hunger: The Story of J. J. Machobane of Lesotho (Johannesburg, 2003), 4362Google Scholar and 70–3.

30 Epprecht, M., ‘This Matter of Women is Getting Very Bad’: Gender, Development and Politics in Colonial Lesotho (Pietermaritzburg, 2000), 181–2Google Scholar.

31 Epprecht, ‘Matter of Women’, 176–87.

32 Epprecht, M., ‘Women's “conservatism” and the politics of gender in late colonial Lesotho’, The Journal of African History, 36:1 (1995), 2956CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

33 Kaul, N., Report on Local Government in Basutoland (Maseru, 1966)Google Scholar, np.

34 TNA OD 31/171, Post Independence Aid to Lesotho, paper on aid to Lesotho, 30 Dec. 1968.

35 Matlosa, ‘Aid’, 5.

36 Before 1964 it was Pius XII College and then the University of Basutoland, Bechuanaland and Swaziland (UBBS).

37 NACP RG 286 USAID, Central Subject Files, 1968–73, Bureau for Africa/Office for Southern Africa Regional Coordination, Box 3, Folder PRM 3 Regional Activities-Lesotho, FY 69, Letter Frank Ellis Director, Food for Freedom Service to Mr. Ed O'Brien, Director Catholic Relief Services, 2 May 1969.

38 World Bank Archives, Washington, DC (WBA), 1859610, Roads Project, Lesotho/Basutoland, Negotiations Volume 1 1961–5; WBA 1859611, Basutoland Road Project Negotiations 2, 1966.

39 Weisfelder, R. F., Political Contention in Lesotho, 1952–65 (Roma, Lesotho, 1999), 1314Google Scholar, 36–7, and 45–6.

40 TNA OD 31/169, Lesotho Post Independence Aid, recorded conversation between High Commissioner, Maseru and Prime Minister Jonathan, 9 Feb. 1967.

41 Grubbs, L., Secular Missionaries: Americans and African Development in the 1960s (Amherst, MA, 2009), 76Google Scholar.

42 Hirschmann, D., Administration of Planning in Lesotho (Manchester, 1981), 13Google Scholar.

43 Ibid. 23–4.

44 Parliamentary Debates of the National Assembly, Hansard, Official Report, 17th April, 1967 (Maseru, 1967); NACP RG 286 USAID, Southern Africa Regional Activities Coordination 1969–73, Box 6; NACP RG 286 USAID, Central Subject Files, 1968–1973, Bureau for Africa/Office for Southern Africa Regional Coordination, Box 3, Telegram Department of State to Maseru, 22 May 1969; NACP RG 59, State Department, Executive Secretariat, Visit Files, Folder V-42 Visit of PM Jonathan of Lesotho, 22 Sept. 1967, Talking points for meeting with Jonathan.

45 Lancaster, C., U. S. Aid to Sub-Saharan Africa: Challenges, Constraints, and Choices (Washington, DC, 1982), 27Google Scholar; De Wet, Betterment.

46 TNA OD 31/219, South African Assistance to Lesotho, 1967–9, Memo High Commissioner Maseru to the Commonwealth Office, 17 Oct. 1968.

47 De Wet, Betterment; TNA OD 31/170, Lesotho Post Independence Aid, memo from High Commissioner Maseru to the Commonwealth Office, London, 28 Feb. 1967.

48 TNA OD 31/219, South African Assistance to Lesotho, 1967–9. This project would eventually be negotiated after the military takeover in the 1980s, and construction on Phase II just started in 2014.

49 Khaketla, Lesotho 1970, 184; Sanders, P., The Last of the Queen's Men: A Lesotho Experience (Johannesburg, 2000), 108Google Scholar and 111.

50 Weisfelder, Contention, 107.

51 TNA FCO 141/851, Oxfam, telegrams from British Government Representative, Maseru to Secretary of State, 9 and 10 June 1965.

52 Rosenberg, S., Promises of Moshoeshoe: Culture, Nationalism, and Identity in Lesotho (Roma, Lesotho, 2008), 63–5Google Scholar.

53 Kaul, Report.

54 Winai-Ström, G., Migration and Development: Dependence on South Africa: A Study of Lesotho (Uppsala, 1986), 82Google Scholar.

55 ‘King and premier to lead tree-planting’, Lesotho News (Ladybrand), 6 Aug. 1966.

56 Showers, Gullies, 62; interview with Michael Mateka, Lesotho, 26 Nov. 2008; interview with Ted Hochstadt, email, July 2012.

57 NACP RG 59, State Department, Executive Secretariat, Visit Files, Folder V-42 Visit of PM Jonathan of Lesotho, 22 Sept. 1967, Record of Conversation Secretary between State Dean Rusk and Jonathan, 29 Sept. 1967.

58 Parliamentary Debates of the National Assembly, Hansard, Official Report, 30th Oct. 1967 (Maseru, 1967), speech by Mokhehle, 2 Nov. 1967.

59 N. Mokhehle, ‘The American Peace Corps (part I)’, The Commentator, Aug. 1968, 21–3.

60 Amin, J. A., The Peace Corps in Cameroon (Kent, OH, 1992), 135Google Scholar and 185; Brown, J. L., Peasants Come Last: A Memoir of the Peace Corps at Fifty (Sunnyvale, CA, 2012), 59Google Scholar.

61 Thabane, M., Who Owns the Land in Lesotho? Land Disputes and the Politics of Land Ownership in Lesotho (Roma, Lesotho, 1998), 46Google Scholar.

62 There were also 27 British Voluntary Service volunteers and occasional groups of Americans and Canadians with Crossroads Africa in the late 1960s: ‘Voluntary service in Quthing’, Moeletsi oa Basotho (Mazenod), 10 Aug. 1968; ‘International Voluntary Service’, Leselinyana la Lesotho (Morija), June 1967, 6; interview with Chaka Ntsane, Maseru, 24 Feb. 2009.

63 Interviews with Gary Bowne, Scott Brumburgh, and Bill Reed, telephone and email, July and Aug. 2012.

64 Interview with Ted Hochstadt.

65 Interview with Bill Reed.

66 NACP RG 490, Peace Corps, Office of International Operations, Country Plans 1966–85, Lesotho 1968–71: Program Memorandum.

67 Ibid.

68 Mda, Z., Sometimes There is a Void: Memoirs of an Outsider (Johannesburg, 2011), 135–6Google Scholar.

69 ‘Tsebetso ea Baithaopi Quthing’, Moeletsi oa Basotho (Mazenod), 10 Aug. 1968, trans. Teboho Mokotjo.

70 TNA FCO 141/976, Famine Relief, British Government Representative to FCO, 8 Mar. 1966.

71 TNA OD 31/169, Post Independence Aid to Lesotho, conversation between Prime Minister Jonathan and British High Commissioner, Maseru, 9 Feb. 1967.

72 Jonathan quoted in Khaketla, Lesotho 1970, 189.

73 TNA OD 31/221, Lesotho National Development Corporation.

74 ‘Support me or else … Jonathan’, Rand Daily Mail (Johannesburg), 25 Oct. 1969.

75 ‘Development will come to winning constituencies – premier Jonathan’, Lesotho News (Ladybrand), 2 Dec. 1969, 3.

76 NACP RG 490, Peace Corps, Office of International Operations, Country Plans 1966–85, Lesotho 1968–71: Program Memorandum.

77 ‘“Keep off politics” Jonathan warns US peace kids’, Weekend World (Johannesburg), 5 Oct. 1969.

78 Annual Report of the Ministry of Education and Culture (Maseru, 1969), np.

79 Lal, ‘Self-reliance’; Jones, Beyond; Jones, D., Aid and Development in Southern Africa: British Aid to Botswana, Lesotho, and Swaziland (London, 1977), 46–8Google Scholar.

80 TNA FCO 141/988, Visit of ODM Mission Oct 1965, memo from ODM Mission Team to Government of Basutoland, 28 Oct. 1965.

81 NACP RG 287 USAID, Central Subject Files, 1968–73, Bureau for Africa, Office for Southern Africa Regional Coordination, Box 5, letter from Campbell, Regional Activities Coordinator, to Charge d'affaires Gebelt, Maseru, 27 Feb. 1970.

82 Biemanns, J. W., Lesotho An Uphill Road (Maseru, 1968), 5Google Scholar.

83 Interview with Tom Carroll, telephone, Aug. 2012.

84 Khaketla, Lesotho 1970, 245.

85 Ibid. 186.

86 Parliamentary Debates of the National Assembly, Hansard, Official Report, 3rd February, 1967 (Maseru, 1967), 17 Feb. 1967.

87 Interview with Scott Brumburgh; interview with Tom Carroll.

88 Murray, C., Families Divided: The Impact of Migrant Labour in Lesotho (Cambridge, 1981)Google Scholar; Epprecht, ‘Matter of Women’, 189.

89 Interview with ‘Maleseka Kena, Tsoelike Auplas, 17 Mar. 2009.

90 All figures from NACP RG 286 USAID, Central Subject Files, 1968–73, Bureau for Africa, Office for Southern Africa Regional Coordination, Box 5, Folder Assistance Plans, Annual Report Special Self-Help Report, 21 July 1969.

91 TNA OD 31/171, Lesotho Post-Independence Aid, internal ODM memo, 30 Dec. 1968; NACP RG 286 USAID, Bureau for Africa, Office of Eastern and Southern Africa, Closed Subject Files of the Southern Africa Regional Activities Coordination, 1969–73, Box 4, Folder Regional Activities (Lesotho) FY 71, Work-for-Food program report, 4 Feb. 1971.

92 ‘St. Rodrigue library to be opened on March 16th’, Lesotho News (Ladybrand), 11 Mar. 1969, 3; ‘Water supply scheme’, Lesotho News (Ladybrand), 29 July 1969, 1; ‘Letsie opens Bokoro water supply scheme’, Lesotho News (Ladybrand), 19 Aug. 1969, 1.

93 NACP RG 286 USAID, Bureau for Africa, Office for Southern Africa Regional Coordination, Box 5, Folder Assistance Plans, Annual Report Special Self-Help Report, 21 July 1969.

94 Khaketla, Lesotho 1970, 187.

95 Ferguson, Anti-Politics, 109.

96 Showers, Gullies, 245–8.

97 Hirschmann, D., ‘Early post-colonial bureaucracy as history: the case of the Lesotho central planning and development office, 1965–1975’, International Journal of African Historical Studies, 20:3 (1987), 459–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

98 By 1979, the figure was approaching $64 million a year. Ferguson, Anti-Politics, 8.

99 The Swedes suspended their aid for three years, for example. Matlosa, ‘Aid’, 6.

100 TNA Records of the Prime Minister's Office (PREM) 13/3297, Lesotho Coup, memo from FCO to High Commissioner, Maseru, 10 June 1970.

101 Khaketla, Lesotho 1970, 316–8.

102 NACP RG 59, State Department, Bureau of African Affairs, Office of Southern African Affairs, Records Relating to Botswana, Lesotho, and Swaziland, 1969–75, Box 1, Folder: Lesotho Government Emergency 1970, letter from Charge d'affaires Gebelt, Maseru to Secretary of State, 26 Mar. 1970.

103 NACP RG 286 USAID, Central Subject Files 1968–73, Bureau for Africa, Office of Southern African Regional Coordination, Box 12, Folder PRM 3 Lesotho FY 1972, Petition 7 Jan. 1972.

104 Ibid.

105 NACP RG 286 USAID, Central Subject Files 1968–73, Bureau for Africa, Office of Southern African Regional Coordination, Box 12, Folder PRM 3 Lesotho FY 1972, Memo Athol Ellis, USAID to Robert Dean, Division Chief, Eastern Africa, International Bank for Reconstruction, 28 Jan. 1972.

106 Winai-Ström, Migration and Development, 94.

107 Thabane, Who Owns the Land, 1.

108 Khaketla, Lesotho 1970, 189.