Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jkksz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T01:06:23.892Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

THE SOUTHERN PROBLEM: REPRESENTING SUDAN'S SOUTHERN PROVINCES TO c. 1970*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 June 2015

JUSTIN WILLIS
JUSTIN WILLIS*
Affiliation:
Durham University
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Southern Sudanese politicians of the 1950s and 1960s have been criticized for a rivalrous, divisive politics, which left the south disunited and vulnerable. While acknowledging that these men were a tiny, squabbling group, remote from those they sought to represent, this article suggests that they faced an impossible task. The demand to represent ‘the south’ did not come solely, or even largely, from the people who lived in the southern provinces: southern politics was heavily extraverted, pulled by the interests and prejudices of northern Sudanese, Egyptians, Britons, and others. Like other African nationalists of the time, southern Sudanese politicians struggled to weave together different levels of moral community, from the very local to the imagined nation. Yet they did so in uniquely unfavourable circumstances: subject to constant harassment and occasionally lethal violence, unable to secure political compromise, and without patronage resources. Representing the south gave these men space to talk about the increasingly desperate circumstances of those who lived in Sudan's southern provinces; but it gave them almost no space at all to negotiate a civic culture of southern politics.

Keywords

South SudanSudandecolonizationnationalismpolitical culture
Type
Crafting Political Identities in the Era of Decolonization
Information
The Journal of African History , Volume 56 , Issue 2 , July 2015 , pp. 281 - 300
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

The author would like to acknowledge, with many thanks, the comments and suggestions of Cherry Leonardi and Nicki Kindersley, as well as the other participants in the panel organized by Douglas Johnson at the African Studies Meeting in Baltimore in 2013. Author's email: [email protected]

References

1 Sudan Archive, Durham (SAD) 932/4/15–62, ‘From political awakening to present southern political leadership’, manuscript apparently by Luigi Adwok, 1967. On the Front's expectations of electoral success, see Robert Collin's notes on discussions with Front politicians in 1968, SAD 919/6/3.

2 Abushouk, A., Al Intikhabat al Barlamaniyya fi as Sudan (Omdurman, 2008), 179–84Google Scholar; J. Howell, ‘Political leadership and organization in the Southern Sudan’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Reading, 1978), 230–1.

3 ‘Report of the Secretary-General of the Southern Front party to the second party congress', The Vigilant (Khartoum), 13 Apr. 1969.

4 Bayart, J.-F., ‘Africa in the world: a history of extraversion’, African Affairs, 99:395 (2000), 219CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 Republic of Sudan, First Population Census of Sudan, 1955/56 (Khartoum, 1961)Google Scholar, Table 1.8.

6 Howell, J., ‘Politics in the Southern Sudan’, African Affairs, 72:287 (1973), 168CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Howell, ‘Political leadership’, 55.

7 Sanderson, L. and Sanderson, N., Education, Religion and Politics in Southern Sudan, 1899–1964 (London, 1981)Google Scholar, 326.

8 Anderson, B. T., Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1991)Google Scholar, 140.

9 Wakoson, E. N., ‘The origin and development of the Anya-Nya movement, 1955–1972’, in Beshir, M. O. (ed.), Southern Sudan: Regionalism and Nationalism (Khartoum, 1984)Google Scholar 190. See also Howell, ‘Political leadership’, 104; Akol, L., Southern Sudan: Colonialism, Resistance and Autonomy (Trenton, NJ, 2007)Google Scholar, 41; Poggo, S., The First Sudanese Civil War: Africans; Arabs and Israelis in the Southern Sudan, 1955–1972 (New York, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 195; Johnson, D., The Root Causes of Sudan's Civil Wars (Oxford, 2003)Google Scholar, 30; Albino, O., The Sudan: A Southern Viewpoint (London, 1970)Google Scholar, 57; Sanderson and Sanderson, Education, Religion and Politics, 314.

10 US National Archives and Record Administration (NARA) RG 59 A 1 5676, Box 1, Noel, US Embassy Khartoum to Looram, State Department, 19 Apr. 1969.

11 SAD 944/2/22–31, Luigi Adwok Bong, ‘Civil service in the Southern Sudan’, 5 Oct. 1966; Malwal, B., People and Power in Sudan–the Struggle for National Stability (London, 1981)Google Scholar, 73.

12 A. M. Arop, The Genesis of Political Consciousness in South Sudan (n.p., 2012), 26.

13 Wai, D., The African-Arab Conflict in the Sudan (New York, 1981)Google Scholar, 15–16; Ruay, D. A., The Politics of Two Sudans: The South and the North, 1821–1969 (Uppsala, 1994)Google Scholar, 18; Alier, Abel, Southern Sudan: Too Many Agreements Dishonoured (Exeter, 1990)Google Scholar, 11–13, 179.

14 Editor, ‘A test of good will’, The Vigilant, 2 June 1967.

15 See, for example, United Kingdom National Archives (UKNA) FO 371/190418, ‘Conversation with Mr Gordon Muortat’, 18 Nov. 1966; Albino, The Sudan, 52, 57.

16 Gertzel, C., Party and Locality in Northern Uganda, 1945–62 (London, 1974)Google Scholar, 52; Terretta, M., ‘“God of independence, God of peace”: village politics and nationalism in the maquis of Cameroon, 1957–71’, The Journal of African History, 46:1 (2005), 77CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

17 Brennan, James R., ‘Blood enemies: exploitation and urban citizenship in the nationalist political thought of Tanzania, 1958–75’, The Journal of African History, 37:3 (2006), 390Google Scholar.

18 Cooper, F., ‘Possibility and constraint: African independence in historical perspective’, The Journal of African History, 49:2 (2008), 167–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

19 Glassman, J., ‘Racial violence, universal history and echoes of abolition in twentieth-century Zanzibar’, in Peterson, D. (ed.), Abolitionism and Imperialism in Britain, Africa and the Atlantic (Athens, OH, 2010), 175–206Google Scholar, 190.

20 Agamben, G., Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life, trans. Heller-Roazen, D. (Stanford, CA, 1998)Google Scholar, 18; Agamben, G., State of Exception, trans. Attell, K. (Chicago, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

21 Robertson, J., Transition in Africa: From Direct Rule to Independence (London, 1974)Google Scholar, 107.

22 Jok, J. M., ‘The legacy of race’, in Fleuhr-Lobban, Carolyn and Rhodes, Kharyssa (eds.), Race and Identity in the Nile Valley (Trenton, NJ, 2004), 187–206Google Scholar; Idris, A., Conflict and the Politics of Identity in Sudan (New York, London, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

23 Sharkey, H., ‘Arab identity and ideology in Sudan: the politics of language, ethnicity and race’, African Affairs, 107:426 (2008), 21–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Powell, E. T., A Different Shade of Colonialism: Egypt, Great Britain and the Mastery of the Sudan (Berkeley, 2003)Google Scholar.

24 Churchill, W. S., The River War: An Historical Account of the Reconquest of the Soudan, 2 vols. (London, 1900)Google Scholar I, 14; Macmichael, H., The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (London, 1934), 17–18Google Scholar, 19; Symes, S., Tour of Duty (London, 1946)Google Scholar, 220.

25 Jackson, H. C., Behind the Modern Sudan (London, 1955)Google Scholar, 9; Naval Staff Intelligence Division, A Handbook of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (London, 1922)Google Scholar, 186. See also Duncan, J. S. R., The Sudan: A Record of Achievement (Edinburgh, 1962)Google Scholar, 1.

26 Macmichael, The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 104.

27 Watson, C., The Sorrow and Hope of the Egyptian Sudan (Philadelphia, 1913)Google Scholar, 109.

28 Republic of Sudan, Southern Sudan Disturbances, 1955: Report of the Commission of Enquiry (Khartoum, 1956), 3Google Scholar.

29 Jok, J. M., Sudan: Race, Religion and Violence (Oxford, 2007), 3–15Google Scholar; Idris, Conflict and the Politics of Identity.

30 Leonardi, C., Dealing with Government in South Sudan: Histories of Chiefship, Community and State (Woodbridge, 2013), pp. 1–10Google Scholar.

31 Wai, The African-Arab Conflict, 43.

32 FO 371/2944, Minutes by D. W. Riches, 27 Apr. 1947, cited from Johnson, D. H. (ed.), British Documents on the End of Empire. Series B, Volume 5, Sudan, 2 vols. (London, 1998)Google Scholar, I, 260.

33 Johnson, Root Causes, 22.

34 The genesis of the phrase is mentioned in ‘Petition to the United Nations by the Sudan African Closed Districts National Union’, 1963, 17.

35 South Sudan Archive, Juba (SSA) EP SCR 10.A.1, Cier Rehan ‘on behalf of the Elders and Chiefs' to Governor, Bahr el Ghazal, 2 Mar. 1953; see also Torit Political Committee to ‘Chiefs and Notables', 16 Mar. 1953.

36 Paysama, S., Autobiography: How a Slave Became a Minister Dellagiacoma, Fr V. (ed.), (Khartoum, 1990)Google Scholar, 63.

37 SSA UNP 1.A.28.3, Nasir Court Members to Prime Minister Ismail Azhari, 31 Aug. 1954 and Chief Aboth and others to Council of Ministers, 15 Sept. 1954; Howell, ‘Political leadership’, 56, 114–15.

38 FO 371/113612, K. Helm to C. Shuckburgh, 30 May 1955, cited from Johnson, British Documents, II, 415.

39 National Record Office, Khartoum (NRO) Elecom 1 10/2/2, Bullen A. de Bior to Chair, Electoral Commission, 17 Apr. 1953; Constantin Libra for Wau Committee to Governor-General, 23 May 1953.

40 Sanderson and Sanderson, Education, Religion and Politics, 341.

41 NRO Elecom 1 11/7/37, Abdel Rahman Sule to Electoral Commission, n.d. Oct. 1953 and 27 Oct. 1953; SSA EP 10.B.23, Abdul Rahman Sule to Governor Equatoria, 4 June 1953; Republic of Sudan, Southern Sudan Disturbances, 23–24.

42 FO 371/108324, Adams to Bromley, 2 Oct. 1954, cited from Johnson, British Documents, II, 368.

43 Howell, ‘Political leadership’, 122–3.

44 Ruay, The Politics of Two Sudans, 90–1.

45 Albino, The Sudan, 82–3; Howell, ‘Political leadership’, 21; Sanderson and Sanderson, Education, Religion and Politics, 314–15; SSA UNP 1.20.168, Bahr el Ghazal Intelligence Report, Dec. 1955–Jan. 1956.

46 Johnson, The Root Causes, 30; Howell, ‘Political leadership’, 95–9.

47 SSA EP 10.B.23, DC Zande to Governor Equatoria, 17 Aug. 1954.

48 SSA EP 10.B.23, Benjamin Lwoki to Governor Equatoria, 22 Oct. 1954; FO 371/108326, Benjamin Lwoki to Anthony Eden, 15 Nov. 1954, cited from Johnson, British Documents, II, 384–5.

49 Johnson, Root Causes, 29–31; Rolandsen, O., ‘A false start: between war and peace in the southern Sudan, 1956–62’, The Journal of African History, 52:1 (2011), 105–23CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

50 Sharkey, ‘Arab identity and ideology’, 33, 37, and 42; Lesch, A. M., The Sudan: Contested National Identities (Bloomington IN/Oxford, 1998)Google Scholar, 1, 21.

51 Poggo, The First Sudanese Civil War, 56–7.

52 Howell, ‘Political leadership’, 165.

53 SSA UNP 10.D.1.6, Liberal Party constitution, Aug. 1957.

54 Abbas, P., ‘Growth of black political consciousness in northern Sudan’, Africa Today, 20:3 (1973), 29–43Google Scholar.

55 SSA UNP 10.D.1.6, Rodento Ondzi Koma, 25 May 1957, attached to Abdel Rahman Sule et al. to Minister of Interior, 25 May 1957.

56 Paysama, Autobiography, 66.

57 NRO UNP 1/3/11, Darius Beshir to Chair, National Constitutional Committee, 25 Jan. 1958, from SAD 947/1/63, notes by R. Collins; SSA EP.10.B.33, Ezbon Mondiri, ‘Reasons for adopting US constitution’, n.d. but 1957/8; Darius Beshir to Michael Tawili, 8 Jan. 1958; for the enduring power of abolitionist language, see D. Peterson, ‘Abolitionism and political thought in Britain and East Africa’, in Peterson (ed.), Abolitionism and Imperialism, 1–37.

58 SSA EP 10.B.33, Ali Baldo, Governor Equatoria to Governor, UNP, 12 Nov. 1957; SSA EP 10.B.33, ‘Political principle [sic] difference between South and North Sudan’, E. K. Mayom, Juba Federalist, 10 Sept. 1957.

59 SSA EP 10.B.33, ‘Political principle’.

60 Aggrey Jaden, ‘The Sudan Today’; from SAD 947/1/28, notes by R. Collins,.

61 SSA EP 10.B.23, Ali Baldo, Governor Equatoria to Abdel Rahman Sule, 22 Jan. 1958 and copy of permit for a meeting at Terakeka, dated 15 Nov. 1957.

62 NRO UNP 1/1/5, Governor Bahr el Ghazal to Ministry of Local Government, 7 Nov. 1957, from notes by R. Collins, SAD 947/1/65; Equatoria Monthly Intelligence Report, Apr. 1957, from 947/1/93, notes by R. Collins.

63 SSA UNP 10.D.1.6, Note on meeting of 25 May 1957, by Rodento Ondzi, attached with Abdel Rahman Sule et al. to Minister of Interior, 25 May 1957.

64 SSA EP 10.B.23, Abdel Rahman Sule, Circular, copied to Governor Equatoria, 12 Sept. 1957; Agenda for ‘Liberal Party 10 members meeting Governor Equatoria’, 12 Jan. 1957.

65 Howell, ‘Politics in the Southern Sudan’, 169; Equatoria Intelligence Report, 16–31 Dec. 1957, from SAD 947/1/96–97, notes by R. Collins.

66 SSA UNP 1.20.168, Allam Hassan Allam, Governor Bahr el Ghazal to Registrar of Judiciary, Khartoum, 14 Dec. 1957.

67 SSA EP 10.B.23, ‘The Liberal Party political propaganda campaigns in Zande District’, attached with B. T. Kisanga, Local Government Inspector to Ali Baldo, Governor. 31 Aug. 1957; also ‘Note’ dated 31 Dec. 1957. Abdel Rahman was subsequently fined S£350 for public order offences; ‘Results of the trial of political cases', 4 June 1958.

68 Equatoria Intelligence report, 1–15 Jan. 1958, from SAD 947/1/96, notes by R. Collins.

69 Howell, ‘Political leadership’, 148–9; 160–1.

70 Stanislaus Paysama, in ‘Weekly Digest of Proceedings in the House of Representatives’, 12 May 1958; from SAD 947/1/4–5, notes by R. Collins; Howell, ‘Political leadership’, 122, 173.

71 SSA UNP.SCR.36.M.1, Vol.2, Circular, Ali Baldo, Governor Equatoria, 4 Dec. 1958.

72 Lesch, The Sudan, 38–9.

73 Letter from M. Mirghani, The Times (London), 13 Apr. 1964, 13. The estimate of Christian numbers is in Republic of Sudan, Southern Sudan Disturbances, 7.

74 Sanderson and Sanderson, Education, Religion and Politics, 359, 393–5.

75 UKNA FO 371/190417, George Kwanai, ‘The Azania Liberation Front manifesto’, 27 July 1966.

76 Editorial, The Times, 13 Mar. 1964, 15.

77 Akol, Southern Sudan, 81.

78 ‘Petition to United Nations by Sudan African Closed Districts National Union, 1963’, 1–3.

79 ‘South Sudan campaign of terror’, The Times, 19 Nov. 1963, 10; ‘Sudan accused of massacres', The Times, 13 July 1965, 11; ‘A story to shock the world’, Daily Mail (London), 31 Jan. 1966, 1.

80 Oduho, J. and Deng, W., The Problem of the Southern Sudan (London, 1963)Google Scholar, 8, 36–8, 54–5.

81 ‘To all Southern Sudan nationalists', Voice of Southern Sudan, 2:3 (Oct. 1964); ‘Paying lip-service to African unity’, Voice of Southern Sudan, 3:1 (May 1965); ‘The Southern Sudan’, Voice of Southern Sudan, 1:1 (Apr. 1963); Editorial, Voice of Southern Sudan, 2:4 (Feb. 1965).

82 W. Deng, ‘Official statement by the National Executive on the Sudan African Closed District National Union’, Voice of Southern Sudan, 1:1 (Apr. 1963).

83 ‘Who has the solution to this problem?’, Voice of Southern Sudan, 3:2 (Oct. 1965); see also ‘Southern Sudan nationalist movement and call for African unity’, Voice of Southern Sudan, 1:4 (n.d. 1963).

84 Copy of undated letter to Milton Obote, Voice of Southern Sudan, 1:1 (Apr. 1963).

85 ‘The Southern Sudan’, Voice of Southern Sudan, 1:1 (Apr. 1963).

86 Editorial comment, Voice of Southern Sudan, 1:2 (n.d. 1963) and 2:1 (Apr. 1964); ‘News items and comments', Voice of Southern Sudan, 1:1 (Apr. 1963).

87 ‘The Southern Sudan’, Voice of Southern Sudan, 1:1 (Apr. 1963).

88 Ibrahim Nyigilo, Southern Sudan Christian Association to Heads of Christian Churches, Voice of Southern Sudan, 1:2 (n.d. 1963); ‘Distinguished southern Muslims renounce their faith’, Voice of Southern Sudan, 1:4 (n.d. 1963).

89 ‘Sudan army fights rebels in jungle’, Washington Post (Washington), 22 Nov. 1965, 9.

90 Poggo, The First Sudanese Civil War, 62–3, 119–20.

91 Rehfisch, F., ‘A study of some Southern migrants in Omdurman’, Sudan Notes and Records, 43 (1962), 50–104Google Scholar.

92 Barclay, H., Buurri al Lamaab: A Suburban Village in the Sudan (Ithaca, NY, 1964), 99–100Google Scholar; Rehfisch, ‘A study’, 51, 91, and 103.

93 Barclay, Buurri al Lamaabi, 129.

94 Rehfisch, ‘A study’, 85.

95 Woodward, P., Sudan: The Unstable State (London, 1990)Google Scholar, 108.

96 Alier, Southern Sudan, 25–6. The term ‘southern problem’ was constantly used: see ‘Assembly debates policy’, The Vigilant, 15 Aug. 1966; ‘Buth reveals secret plans', The Vigilant, 17 Aug. 1966; ‘Clement confers with Nugdalla’, The Vigilant, 22 Aug. 1966.

97 Malual, People and Power, 82–5.

98 Paysama, Autobiography, 70.

99 SSA EP 10/A/1 1EP147, Southern Front constitution, attached with Darius Beshir to Minister of Interior, 5 June 1965; see also SAD 951/4/1, Southern Front press release no. 1, n.d. 1965; ‘Report from SANU Central Office’, Voice of Southern Sudan, 2:4 (Feb. 1965).

100 A. Alier, ‘Obstructions on the way to the solution of the Southern problem’, The Vigilant, 7 Dec. 1966.

101 G. Muortat, ‘Why the South boycotted elections in March 1965’, The Vigilant, 26 Aug. 1966; Editor, ‘The Sudan Communist Party in disguise’, The Vigilant, 12 Dec. 1966.

102 ‘The anti-south campaign’, The Vigilant, 31 Aug. 1966.

103 NARA RG 59 A1 5676, Box 6, Despatch from British Ambassador, 6 Jan. 1966, copy in POL 4.3, ‘Southern Front’.

104 Alier, Southern Sudan, 29–40.

105 Ruay, The Politics of Two Sudans, 115; NARA RG 59 A1 5676, Box 6, POL 1, Memo, G. Mennon Williams, 2 Apr. 1965.

106 NARA RG 59 A1 5676, Box 6, POL 4.4, R. W. Stookey, ‘Southern organization and leaders', 25 May 1966.

107 UKNA FO 371/190418, Griffith, British Embassy, Khartoum to FO, 26 Nov. 1966.

108 Sikainga, A., ‘Northern Sudanese political parties and the civil war’, in Daly, M. and Sikainga, A. (eds.), Civil War in the Sudan (London, 1993)Google Scholar, 78–96; Warburg, G., Islam, Sectarianism and Politics in Sudan since the Mahdiyya (London, 2003)Google Scholar, 144.

109 Akol, South Sudan, 45; ‘The debate on the South’, The Vigilant, 11 Sept. 1966.

110 NARA RG 59 A 1 5676, Box 1, Weathersby, US Embassy Khartoum to Dean Rusk, State Department, 23 Apr. 1966.

111 ‘Southern Front rejects the validity of electoral rolls', The Vigilant, 27 Dec. 1966.

112 ‘Umma party nominates for 32 constituencies in the South’ and ‘PDP report on elections in the South’, The Vigilant, 20 Jan. and 14 Feb. 1967; Editor, ‘To go and to see’, The Vigilant, 26 Oct. 1966; ‘SANU attacks NOUS', The Vigilant, 20 Sept. 1966.

113 UKNA FO 1090/1, Griffith, British Embassy, Khartoum to FO, 14 Jan. 1967.

114 SAD 932/1/4–6, Luigi Adwok, ‘The possibility of free elections in the South’, 13 Oct. 1966.

115 NARA RG 59 A1 5676, Box 6, ‘Southern Sudanese leaders – information memorandum’, 13 Jan. 1965.

116 ‘Symposium’, The Vigilant, 18 Oct. 1966; Editor, ‘The killing of chiefs at Bor’, The Vigilant, 9 Jan. 1967; ‘What security means in Upper Nile’, The Vigilant, 27 Jan. 1967; Ruay, The Politics of Two Sudans, 129–35.

117 ‘Report from the South: By our own correspondent’, The Vigilant, 23 Jan. 1967.

118 H. Logali, quoted in ‘The Southern Problem: barriers on the way to a solution’, The Vigilant, 2 Dec. 1966.

119 As reported by a British diplomat: UKNA FO 371/190417, Owen Griffith, Khartoum to Dodds, Foreign Office, 21 Mar. 1966.

120 Howell, ‘Political leadership’, 217–19, 223; Cooper, ‘Possibility and constraint’, 178.

121 NARA RG 59 A1 5676, Box 6, POL 14–1, ‘The Southern Sudan–insurgency and elections', 31 Mar. 1967.

122 NARA RG 59 A 1 5676, Box 6, POL 14–2, ‘Information memorandum’, Matthew Looram, 18 Apr. 1967.

123 ‘Clement Mboro condemns election results', The Vigilant, 14 Apr. 1967; Editor, ‘Election results', The Vigilant, 16 Apr. 1967.

124 The latter phrase is used twice in a short press release: UKNA FO 1090/1, SANU press release, 29 Apr. 1967.

125 UKNA FO 1090/1, British Embassy, Khartoum to NENAD FCO, 15 Apr. 1967; see also Malwal, People and Power, 91–3.

126 ‘SF ready to contest general elections', The Vigilant, 16 Mar. 1967; Albino, The Sudan, 68.

127 ‘Clement returns from the South and says situation is improving’, The Vigilant, 14 Nov. 1967; Editor, ‘Situation in southern Sudan’, The Vigilant, 21 Nov. 1967; ‘Reports from the South’, The Vigilant, 5 Dec. 1967.

128 The Vigilant, 14 Nov. 1967.

129 SAD 890/2, ‘Autobiography of Hilary Paul Nyigilo Logali’, 119–20; SAD 919/6/54–67, R. O. Collins, ‘Equatoria’.

130 ‘Southern parties conference opens tonight’, The Vigilant, 12 May 1967; Editor, ‘Assembly and the incidents in the South’, The Vigilant, 28 Nov. 1967; ‘Clement's address at the inauguration of the Southern Front Youth Congress', The Vigilant, 19 Dec. 1967.

131 ‘How justifiable is the word “brother” in northern Sudanese usage?’, The Vigilant, 27 Apr. 1967.

132 ‘For thought’, The Vigilant, 28 Apr. 1967; ‘Southern Front explains stand after walkout of constitutional committee’, The Vigilant, 14 July 1967; ‘No guarantee for religious minorities under a new constitution’, The Vigilant, 29 Dec. 1968.

133 NARA RG 59 A 1 5676, Box 1, Leo, US Embassy Khartoum to Looram, State Department, 13 Mar. 1968; also POL 12 Elections, 1968, Memorandum, ‘Notes on revised elections worksheet method’, 16 Apr. 1968; Arop, The Genesis of Political Consciousness, 152–4; Abushouk, Al Intikhabat.

134 Interview with Toby Madut, 4 Feb. 2009.

135 Malual, People and Power, 42–3.

136 I. M. Akoc, ‘The southern parties', The Vigilant, 9 Feb. 1969; A. W. Akoc, ‘The upheavals of Southern politics', The Vigilant, 23 Feb. 1969.

137 NARA RG 59 A 1 5676, Box 1, Noel, US Embassy Khartoum to Looram, State Department, 19 Apr. 1969.

138 Daily Nation (Nairobi), 4 May 1969; copy in UKNA FCO 39/480.

139 UKNA FCO 39/686, White, British High Commission, Kampala to Walker, FCO, 20 Feb. 1970.

140 ‘Rivals plan secret talks in Sudan’, Uganda Argus (Kampala), 7 May 1969, copy in UKNA FCO 39/480; Albino, The Sudan, 118.

141 NARA RG 59 A 1 5676, Box 1, Beauveau Nalle, US Embassy Kampala to Edward Schaefer, 24 June 1968.

142 SAD 944/5/45, Circular letter, Aggrey Jaden, 23 May 1968.

143 ‘No Merc minister’, Sunday Nation (Nairobi), 28 Dec. 1969; ‘Tucked away in Africa ¼ race war threat of a new Biafra’, Daily Mail, 2 Mar. 1970; ‘BBC despatch from Nairobi by Peter Stewart’, 18 Apr. 1970; ‘Sudan–the death’, The Economist (London), 1 Aug. 1970: all cuttings in UKNA FCO 39/686; Voice of Southern Sudan, new series, 3:5 (1969).

144 ‘Nile “government” is dissolved’, Uganda Argus, 22 July 1970, copy in UKNA FCO 39/686.

145 E. N. Wakoson, ‘The Southern Sudan: the political leadership of the Anya-Nya movement’, in Post Independence Sudan, Proceedings of a seminar held in the Centre of African Studies, University of Edinburgh, 1998’, 86–109, quote at 108. See also Johnson, The Root Causes, 33; Poggo, The First Sudanese Civil War, 56, 116, and 195; Howell, ‘Political leadership’, 272; and Ruay, The Politics of Two Sudans, 154.

146 Wai, The African-Arab Confict, 114–15.

147 E. N. Wakoson, ‘The politics of southern self-government, 1972–83’, Daly and Sikainga, Civil War in the Sudan, 27–50, 47.