² For an elaboration of some of these points see Newbury, Colin, ‘Labour Migration in the Imperial Phase: An Essay in Interpretation’, J. of Imperial and Commonwealth Hist., iii, 2 (01 1975).Google Scholar

³ For E. Africa see Tinker, H.A New System of Slavery: The Export of Indian Labour Overseas, 1830–1930, (London, 1974). 277–8Google Scholar; for Samoa see Moses, J. A. ‘The Coolie Labour Question and German Colonial Policy in Samoa, 1900–1914’, J. of Pacific Hist., viii (1974), 101–24Google Scholar; for Indo-China see Courier d'Haiphong, 29 Aug. 1905.Google Scholar

⁴ Arrival Report of the s.s. Tweeddale, Durban, 18 June 1904, FLD 122, file 16/1Google Scholar; arrival Report of the S.s. Cranky, Durban, 5 Jan. 1907, FLD 124, file 16/34; Minutes of Representatives of Mining Groups, 16 Feb. 1904; Instructions to Perry at Tientsin, ATCM, Minutes of Representatives of Groups, 1904; Selborne, to Elgin, , 28 May 1906, Cd. 3038Google Scholar. Figures drawn from Shipping Returns of CMLIA, 1904–7, in CMLIA Circular no. 1029, 8 Feb. 1907, ATCM, Ch. 65. There is a lot of evidence to show that a number considerably in excess of the 63,296 men actually contracted and shipped to South Africa between 1904 and 1907 were mobilized in both north and south China. This is an important aspect of the Transvaal scheme for it shows not only the difficulties and policies of recruiting but also the very real impact which this experiment had on the dislocated areas of north and south China. For the discrepancy between the numbers recruited and shipped from the south, see the contract sheet for the East Rand Proprietary Mines, no. 14 of 1904 per s.s. Lothian in FLD 343; for north China see Brazier, to Bagot, 27 Mar. 1905Google Scholar; Brazier, to Bagot, 2 Apr. 1905Google Scholar; Chinese Engineering and Mining Company to CMLIA, 4 Apr. 1905 and Forbes, William and Company to CMLIA 7 Apr. 1905Google Scholar: encl. 1 and 2 in Brazier, to Bagot, , 8 Apr. 1905Google Scholar, ATCM, ‘G’ Letters from China.

⁵ Articles of Association of CMLIA, 15 July 1904, ATCM, Ch. 60. Minutes of the Representatives of Mining Groups, 10 Oct. 1903, ATCM, Ch. 14. The following groups resolved to guarantee £100,000 for preliminary expenses, which was actually found by Wernher/Beit, London, and were represented by the Committee of Agents: H. Eckstein & Co.; Rand Mines Ltd.; Consolidated Gold Fields; Farrar Brothers/Anglo-French Exploration Company; Barnato Brothers; J. B. Robinson; A. Goerz & Co.; G. & L. Albu; S. Neumann & Co.; Transvaal Goldfields; B. Kitzinger; Lewis and Marks; Compagnie Française de Mines d'Or et de l'Afrique du Sud.; Memorandum of Agreement between WNLA and CMLIA, 3 Feb. 1908, ATCM, Ch. 63; Articles 3 and 7 of Memorandum of Agreement between WNLA and CMLIA, 3 Feb. 1908, op. cit.

⁶ For a general discussion of these points see C. Newbury, op. cit., and Newbury, C. ‘Historical Aspects of Manpower and Migration in Africa South of the Sahara’, chapter 13 of P. Duignan and L. H. Gann, Colonialism in Africa, 1870–1960: volume IV. The Economics of Colonialism, (London, 1975).Google Scholar

⁷ ARSARCM for 1898, pp. 430; ARTCM for 1902, pp. 247; ARTCM for 1905, pp. 199.

⁸ Monthly production totals of the Witwatersrand declared in ARSARCM for 1899; ARTCM for 1902–5, Shipping returns of the CMLIA, 1904, in CMLIA Circular no. 1029, 8 Feb. 1907; ATCM, Ch. 65.

⁹ Denoon, D., A Grand Illusion, (London, 1973), 135, 156Google Scholar; Van der Horst, S., Native Labour in South Africa, (London, 1942), 165–7Google Scholar; Transvaal Chamber of Mines Circular to Groups, 25 Oct. 1900, ATCM, Conf. Circulars, 1896–1901; Transvaal Chamber of Mines Circular to Groups, 13 Nov. 1902, ATCM Conf. Circulars, 1902; Transvaal Chamber of Mines Circular to Members, 29 Apr. 1903, Conf. Circulars, 1903.

¹⁰ Frankel, S. H., Investment and Return to Equity Capital in the South African Gold Mining Industry, 1887–1965, (Oxford, 1967), 27–8Google Scholar, for the declining purchasing power of gold in this period; Denoon, op. cit., 194–5 on the effects of railway reduction; see Cd. 1640 for the Proceedings of the South African Customs Union Conference, Bloemfontein, 1903.

¹¹ Johnstone, Frederick A., Class, Race and Gold, (London, 1976), 19Google Scholar. See 17–20 for an excellent discussion of the problems affecting the realization of the accumulation of profit through the investment of capital in, and operation of, the South African gold mining industry. See also Jeeves, A., ‘The Control of Migratory Labour on the South African Gold Mines in the Era of Kruger and Milner’, J. of Southern African Studies (JSAS), ii, 1 (Oct. 1975), 3–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Wilson, F., Labour in the South African Gold Mines, 1911–1969, (London, 1972), 39–40Google Scholar for discussions of the pay limit and determinants affecting it. Contrary to the expectations of neo-classical economists, the grade of ore in the Witwatersrand mines showed a continual decline in this period, indicating that falling production and rising costs could not even be temporarily offset within the tightly determined productive process of the Witwatersrand mines. See Frankel, op. cit. 21–8 for an elaboration of the neo-classical argument; for a critique, see my review article, ‘South and Central African mining, c. 1900–1933’, African Affairs, forthcoming.Google Scholar

¹² Katzen, Leo, Gold and the South African Economy, (Cape Town, 1964), 66–7Google Scholar; Kubicek, R., ‘Finance Capital and South African Gold Mining, 1886–1914’, J. of Imperial and Commonwealth Hist., iii, 3 (05 1975), 388–9Google Scholar; Frankel, op. cit. Table 5, 27; see also Chief Inspector of Revenues to the Colonial Treasurer of the Transvaal, 9 Jan. 1904, encl. 1 in Milner, to Lyttelton, 18 Jan. 1904, CO. 291/68/4234Google Scholar for the effect of this falling rate of profit on Profit Tax Revenue.

¹³ Report of the Committee on White and Coloured Labour, 2 Dec. 1902, ATCM, W6(c); for an elaboration of these points see also the Report of H. Ross Skinner presented to the WNLA, 22 Sept. 1903, ATCM, Pte. Chinese Labour; speech by Sir George Farrar in the Leg. Co., 28 Dec. 1903, encl. in Milner, to Lyttelton, , 5 Jan. 1904, CO. 291/68/2494Google Scholar. For a similar ‘shortage’ of labour related to its costs see Van Onselen, C., Chibaro: African Mine Labour in Southern Rhodesia, 1900–1933, (London, 1976), 75–91.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Denoon. cit. 127–58; Campbell, P. C., Chinese Coolie Emigration to Countries Within the British Empire, (London, 1923), 173Google Scholar; Worsfold, B., The Reconstruction of the New Colonies under Lord Milner, 2 vols. (London, 1913), chs. XI and XII.Google Scholar

¹⁵ For an analysis of the differential recruiting policies of the Transvaal Chamber of Mines, see Moroney, S., ‘Industrial Conflict in a Labour Repressive Economy: Black Labour in the Transvaal Gold Mines, 1901–1912’ (unpubl. University of the Wit-watersrand B.A. Hons. thesis, 1976), ch. 9Google Scholar; see also Request by Chamber of Mines to Milner to secure permission to recruit an additional 5,000 Africans for the Witwatersrand. Mines from British Central Africa, ATCM, Minutes of Representatives of Groups, 1904: 21 Jan. 1904; Chamber of Mines Circular to Groups, 13 Nov. 1902 re Maximum Average Wage, ATCM, Conf. Circulars, 1902; Chamber of Mines Circular no. 10 of 1903, 14 Mar. 1903 re Elimination of Competition between Contractors and Mining Companies for Labour, ATCM, Conf. Circulars, 1903.

¹⁶ See for example Chamber of Mines support for the repression of the Liquor Trade after the war—Van Onselen, C., “The Randlords and Rotgut, 1886–1903’, History Work-Shop, no. 2 (Autumn, 1976)Google ScholarPubMed. This paper was first presented to the I.C.S. (London) Seminar on Southern Africa, in 1975.

¹⁷ Jennings, Hennen, Chinese Labour on the Rand, Imperial South Africa Association Pamphlet (3 Feb. 1904)Google Scholar, ATCM ‘H’ Series Pamphlets; Cd. 1895, Evid. of Jennings, S. to the Transvaal Labour Commission, 8 Sept. 1903, no. 9,958, pp. 454.Google Scholar

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²⁰ For a general discussion of some of these points see Johnstone, op. cit. 32–4; for the crisis in Portuguese East Africa see Denoon, D., ‘The Transvaal Labour Crisis, 1901–1906’, J. Afr. Hist., viii (1967), 481–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²¹ See Cd. 1895, evid. of Jennings, S. to the Transvaal Labour Commission, 8 Sept. 1903, no. 9,923, pp. 454.Google Scholar

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²³ The number of Mozambique Africans in the Rhodesian mines might have had some effect on the absolute numbers distributed by WNLA between 1902 and 1004: see Onselen, Van, Chibaro, 86–90Google Scholar; Annual Report, WNLA, 1902Google Scholar: Table Showing Geographical Origins of Africans distributed by WNLA. This figure includes Africans from Portuguese East African territories north of Lat. 220 S. Annual Report, WNLA, 1903Google Scholar; Annual Report, WNLA, 1904Google Scholar. The number of short-term contracts also showed an alarming tendency to rise, posing a threat to the quota system and raising the prospect of increased turnover rates: the average of ‘locals’ in the numbers distributed by WNLA between 1902 and 1907 averaged out at 27.08 per cent of all Africans distributed annually; Annual Reports, WNLA, 1902–1907Google Scholar: Tables of Geographical Origins of Africans Distributed by WNLA. British Central Africans accounted for 0, 1–10 and 1.31 per cent of Africans distributed by WNLA between 1902 and 1904. Locals, including a significant number of non-British South Africans, offset this decline somewhat, but the unreliability of local numbers meant that a shortage in recruited Africans in Portuguese East Africa was still very serious. See Jeeves, op. cit. 17–18.

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²⁵ For an elaboration of the complementary roles of Chinese and Portuguese East African Labour, see Perry, F., The Transvaal Labour Problem, a paper read before the Fortnightly Club, Johannesburg, 1 Nov. 1906Google Scholar, in the Archives of the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.

²⁶ Ross Skinner Report, op. cit. 6, 12; for discussions of the development of British and Chinese government positions on the Coolie traffic, see P. C. Campbell, op. cit. 86–216; Irick, Robert L., ‘Ch'ing Policy towards the Coolie Trade, 1847–1878’ (unpubl. Ph.D. thesis, Harvard 1971), passimGoogle Scholar. For full English and Chinese texts of the 1904 Emigration Convention, 13 May 1904, see Imperial Maritime Customs Service, Treaties between China and Foreign States, (Shanghai, 1917), ii, 643–51.Google Scholar

²⁷ Brazier, to Bagot, , 15 Aug. 1905, endGoogle Scholar. in Bagot, to Jamieson, , 14 Sept. 1905, FLD 131, file 20/-.Google Scholar

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²⁹ Articles 2 and 63 of the Articles of Association of CMLIA, op. cit.; Praagh, L. V. (ed.), The Transvaal and Its Mines, (London, 1906), 534Google Scholar. For the appointment of expert advisers, see for example the appointment of A. W. Child as Chinese Advisor to CMLIA, Brazier, to Bagot, 4 May 1905Google Scholar, ATCM, ‘G’ Letters from China: ‘For seventeen years he [Child] has been at Sir Robert's [Hart] beck and call at Peking—his “fidus achates”— and his knowledge of the Northern people, their ways, customs, manners and spoken language is unequalled’. Report by Mr Raleigh on Landing Facilities at Durban and Delagoa Bay, 1903, in Barlow-Rand Archives, H. Eckstein Papers, HE65B. For examples of travel arrangements see Principal Immigration Restriction Officer, Port Natal, to Superintendent of FLD at Natal, 5 Jan. 1907; Bagot, W. L. to Chief Traffic Manager, Central South African Railways, 16 Dec. 1906, CMLIA Circular No. 1007Google Scholar; Bagot, W. L. to Chief Traffic Manager, CSAR, 5 Jan. 1907, CMLIA Circular No. 1007aGoogle Scholar; FLD 124, file 16/34; also FLD Annual Report, 1904–1905, appendix IV of Cd. 3025.Google Scholar

³⁰ Brazier, Russell, Imperial Maritime Customs Commissioner, Kowloon, was the general manager in China from 1 Oct. 1904 until 1 Sept. 1907Google Scholar, when he was succeeded by Kempster, H. W., originally a European overseer on the ships and in the Chinese compounds: Brazier to CMLIA, 1 Oct. 1904Google Scholar, ATCM, ‘G’ Letters from China; Kempster, H. W. to CMLIA, 30 Mar. 1907Google Scholar, ATCM, “C Letters from China. The original intention had been to locate the headquarters of the South African operation in the south of China at Hong Kong, but recruiting difficulties had made this impracticable. Statement by Perry, F. in The Standard, 25 Jan. 1905Google Scholar. Complete Staff List of the CMLIA in China, encl. 1 in Brazier, to Bagot, , 29 June 1905Google Scholar, ATCM, ‘G’ Letters from China. Report on the Depot at Ch'inghuangtao by Kempster, H. W., Mar. 1907, pp. 28Google Scholar: encl. 2 in Brazier, to Bagot, , 18 Mar. 1907Google Scholar, ATCM, ‘C’ Letters from China. Brazier, to Bagot, , 2 Apr. 1905Google Scholar, ATCM, ‘G’ Letters from China. Brazier to L. C. Hopkins, British Consul-General, Tientsin, 12 June 1906 re suppression of anti-South African cartoons in Bei-jing hua-bao, encl. 1 in Brazier to Bagot, ATCM, ‘C’ Letters from China. Walter (Transvaal emigration agent, Tientsin) to Lyttelton, 20 July 1904, CO. 879/85/755.

³¹ Complete Staff List of the CMLIA in China, encl. 1 in Brazier, to Bagot, , 29 June 1905Google Scholar, op. cit.; Brazier, to Bagot, , 5 Aug. 1905Google Scholar: encl. 1 in Bagot, to Jamieson, , 14 Oct. 1905, FLD 131, file 20/-Google Scholar; Annual Report of the FLDfor 1905–1906, Pretoria 1906, 4056–12/9/06–600Google Scholar; Brazier, to Bagot, , 7 Apr. 1905Google Scholar; and Moorhead, to Perry, , 19 Sept. 1904Google Scholar, encl. 3 in Brazier, to Bagot, , 7 Apr. 1905, ATCM, ‘G’ Letters from China.Google Scholar

³² For a history of the Swire empire in the Far East, and particularly their connexion with the Holt, Blue Funnel Line, see Hyde, F. E., Blue Funnel: A History of Alfred Holt & Co., 1865–1914 (London, 1956)Google Scholar; see also Marriner, Sheila and Hyde, F. E., The Senior: John Samuel Swire, 1865–1898 (London, 1967)Google Scholar. Gibb, Livingstone & Co., had by the end of the nineteenth century a very large share in the organization of the emigrant traffic to the Straits, as well as the lucrative shipping agency for the CMLIA: see Hong Kong Telegraph, 18 June 1904Google Scholar. For Jardine, Matheson & Co., see LeFevour, E., Western Enterprise in Late Ch'ing China. A Selective Survey of Jardine, Matheson and Company's operations, 1842–1895, (Cambridge, Mass., 1968)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cornabé, Eckford and Company were a large locally-based general trading firm: see Report on a Journey through Shantung by Silas-Schwabé, E., Dec. 1904, app. IIIGoogle Scholar: Present Position and Future Prospects of Emigration of Coolies from Shantung to the Transvaal, encl. 5 in Brazier, to Bagot, , 19 Apr. 1905Google Scholar, ATCM, ‘G’ Letters from China. Silas-Schwabé and Company were experienced brokers for the emigrant traffic from Shantung to Vladivostok to work on the Trans-Siberian Railway and with the Russian Army, Silas-Schwabé, to Satow, , 26 Oct. 1904, F.O. 228/1531Google Scholar. William Forbes and Company were one of the largest export companies north of Shanghai in 1904, with extensive interests in the hide, skin, and wool trades, Perry, in the Standard, 25 Jan. 1905Google Scholar. The Chinese Engineering and Mining Company were the central actors in one of the more notorious of late Ch'ing imperialist scandals—the seizure of the K'ai-P'ing Coal Mines. See Carlson, Ellsworth C.. The K'ai-P'ing Mines, 1877–1912, 2nd edn. (Cambridge, Mass., 1971), 57–151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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³⁵ Statement by Perry, F. in the Standard, 25 July 1905Google Scholar; Perry, to CO., 10 Feb. 1905, CO. 879/85/761Google Scholar; Statement by Sir Halliday Macartney at the first Meeting of the Committee re Engagement of Chinese Labourers, 1 Mar. 1904, end. in F.O. to CO., 12 Mar. 1904, CO. 291/75/9608.

³⁶ For a discussion of the notion of a comprador bourgeois class see Brown, M. Barratt, The Economics of Imperialism, (Harmondsworth, 1974), 261–2, 274–5.Google Scholar

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³⁹ Sheppard, H., Attorney for Livingstone, Halton & Co., London, to Brazier 5 Nov. 1904Google Scholar, end. 1 in Brazier, to Bagot, , 8 Nov. 1904Google Scholar; Brazier, to Bagot, , 22 Mar. 1905Google Scholar and Brazier, to Bagot, , 27 Apr. 1905, ATCMGoogle Scholar, op. cit.

⁴⁰ Encl. in Cowie, Sec, Transvaal Chamber of Mines, to the Pte. Sec. of the Gov., 29 Dec. 1905, op. cit.; See Tables in Ch. 9 of S. Moroney, op. cit.; Shipping Returns of CMLIA, 1904–7, in CMLIA Circular No. 1029, 8 Feb. 1907. 59 per cent of all Chinese labourers had been landed by 30 Apr. 1905, 11 months after the embarkation of the s.s. Tweeddale.

⁴¹ Brazier, to Bagot, , 8 Nov. 1904Google Scholar; Brazier, to Bagot, , 8 Apr. 1905Google Scholar, op. cit.; Richardson, P., ‘Recruiting Activities of the Chamber of Mines in South China, 1903–5’Google Scholar, op. cit.; Perry, F. to C.O. 10 Feb. 1905, C.O. 879/85/761.Google Scholar

⁴² Reports of the Transvaal Government Mining Engineer, 1906–7; 1907–8.

⁴³ S. Moroney, op. cit. pp. 125–6.

⁴⁴ Annual Reports, WNLA, 1904–1906Google Scholar: Geographical Origins of Africans Distributed. Figures calculated from the Annual Reports, WNLA and Government Mining Engineer, 1905–7.

⁴⁵ Denoon, , A Grand Illusion, pp. 156Google Scholar; Annual Report, Transvaal Government Mining Engineer, 1905–1906Google Scholar, For a discussion of the role of cheap Black and Chinese and White scab labour in the 1907 strike see Davies, op. cit.; also ATCM, W9–1907.

⁴⁶ Memo re Importation Costs, probably Jan. 1904 in ATCM, Ch. 16 as to the possibility of an average importation cost for African and Chinese labour. This was a matter of considerable debate: see Minutes of the Representatives of Mining Groups, 16 Feb. 1904 on the appointment of a sub-Committee to determine whether members should be groups or companies, op. cit.; CMLIA Statistical Return of Chinese Labourers in Employment of Members for July 1907, in ATCM, Ch. 66. The following is the group breakdown:

⁴⁷ Clauses 5 and 6 of the Contract of Service printed in full in A Handbook of Ordinances, Proclamations, Regulations and Instructions Connected with Importation of Foreign Labour into the Transvaal, (Pretoria, 1906), 4335–3/10/1906–700Google Scholar; see also CO. 291/75/21207, Lyttelton, to Milner, 16 June 1904.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ For an example of the role of the Chinese Advisor see Richardson, P., ‘Coolies and Randlords: The North Randfontein Chinese Miners “Strike” of 1905’, JSAS, (04 1976), 168–71Google Scholar; for an example of the importance of circularized information see CMLIA Circular No. 116, 7 Aug. 1907 re Disturbance on the Cason Gold Mine, 5 Aug. 1907, ATCM, Ch. 66; for the presence of the CMLIA on an industry deputation to the Government re reduction of Passport fees for Chinese labourers, see Minutes of Deputation from the Transvaal Chamber of Mines to the Acting Lt-Governor, 27 Jan. 1905 in ATCM, Ch. 59. See also Minutes of Conference between Consulting Engineers and the Superintendent of FLD re Fair-day's Work, Efficients and Inefficients, Minimum Average Wage, 3 Feb. 1905, ATCM, Ch. 59.

⁴⁹ For further discussion of this point see Richardson, , ‘Coolies and Randlords’, pp. 176–7.Google Scholar

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⁵¹ Jeeves, op. cit. pp. 22–8. For the industry's successful reduction of recruiting and shipping costs see Perry to Committee of Agents, 19 Jan. 1904 quoted in Minutes of Representatives of Mining Groups, 21 Jan. 1904, ATCM. The degree of this indebtedness was striking. For example on the s.s. Ascot which arrived on 26 Apr. 1905 at Durban with 286 labourers for the French Rand Gold Mine (inter alia) contracted at Chefoo, there was 100 per cent indebtedness to the CMLIA: 278 labourers receiving advances of $37 each, and 8 labourers receiving advances of $47 each, making a total cash outlay by the CMLIA of $10,662, or £1,066 4s. for this quarter of the shipment alone. FLD 345 Contract No. 60 of 1905, French Rand Gold Mine, from Chefoo, via s.s. Ascot. This contract was officially approved by the Transvaal Government—See Handbook of Ordinances, op. cit.

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