² Rapport d'ensemble sur la pacification, l'organisation et la colonisation de Madagascar (Tananarive, 1899), p. 14.Google Scholar

³ The only full-length work on the menalamba is Rasoanasy, J., Menalamba sy tanindrazana (Tananarive, 1976)Google Scholar. For a good discussion of the published evidence on the leadership of the menalamba see Ayache, S., ‘Introduction à l'œuvre de Rainandriamampandry’, Annales de l'Université de Madagascar, série lettres, x (1969), 11–50.Google Scholar

⁴ The papers in question are those of the Laroche family, in Paris, and the Lyautey papers, soon to be transferred to a permanent archive in Paris. I am most grateful to Madame Laroche for permission to study her family papers in her own home, and to MM. P. Toussaint and A. Le Révérend and Madame Bonazzi for permission to consult the Lyautey papers. See also note 73.

⁵ On the political factions see C. Le Myre de Vilers, ‘Note sur la situation politique et morale’, and ‘Généalogie des principales familles Malgaches’, 14 December 1888, Ministère des Affaires Etrangères (MAE), Paris, correspondance politique, Madagascar, ancienne série, vol. 30, fols. 23–32 and 46–53; on the French party, see Knight, E. F., Madagascar in War Time (London, 1896)Google Scholar, passim; for a brief biography of Rasanjy, , Notes, Reconnaissances et Explorations, iii (1898), 116–17.Google Scholar

⁶ Pascal, R., ‘Les rapports de quinzaine d'Hippolyte Laroche’, pt. v, Bulletin de Madagascar, ccxlviii bis (02 1967), pp. 165–70Google Scholar, prints the treaty. See also Lebon, A., La pacification de Madagascar (Paris, 1928)Google Scholar, passim, on French arguments over the government of Madagascar.

⁷ Dépôt des Archives d'Outre-Mer (DAOM), Aix-en-Provence, Madagascar 2 Z 326: memoranda by Ranchot, , 14 and 29 Oct. 1895Google Scholar; and Madagascar 2 Z 342: Ranchot, to ministre des affaires étrangères, 15 November 1895.Google Scholar

⁸ DAOM, Mad. 2 Z 342: Ranchot, to ministre des affaires étrangères, 16 January 1896Google Scholar; Mad. 2 Z 365: General Voyron to ministre de la guerre, 1 February 1896.Google Scholar

⁹ On the spread of the insurrection in northern Imerina, DAOM Mad. 6 (2) D 3: Ramampanenitra to Ramasoandromahamay (Rabozaka), 19 Alakarabo 1896Google Scholar; in southern Imerina, DAOM Mad. 2 Z 361, passim.

¹⁰ Menalamba means literally ‘red shawls’. The most plausible explanation for the name is that the leaders wore red shawls as a traditional symbol of authority.

¹¹ Savaron, C., Mes souvenirs à Madagascar avant et après la conqute (Tananarive, 1932), p. 287Google Scholar. The Laroche papers include the manuscript of the unpublished memoirs of Laroche, Hippolyte, resident-general of Madagascar from January to October 1896Google Scholar. These include a chapter entitled ‘La semaine sanglante’, a record of the siege of Tananarive.

¹² Laroche, H., ‘Le pouvoir civil et le commandement’, chapter XIII of his memoirsGoogle Scholar; Lebon, A., La pacification, passim.Google Scholar

¹³ Berthier, H., ‘Le protectorat du 1er Octobre 1895 au 18 Janvier 1896’, Bulletin de l'Académie Malgache (new series), xxiv (1941), 121.Google Scholar

¹⁴ ‘Le service des renseignements militaires’, chapter XII of Laroche's memoirs, typescript of 57 pages, Laroche papers. The original report of the conspiracy is in DAOM Mad. 2 Z 347: Voyron, to Laroche, 18 June 1896.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Pascal, , ‘Les rapports de quinzaine’, pt. IV, Bull, de Madag. ccxlviii (January1967), 73–86.Google Scholar

¹⁶ ‘Compte-rendu de la réunion du 16 Juin 1896’, Laroche papers, rapports spéciaux.

¹⁷ Laroche papers: Gautier to Laroche, 1 June 1896Google Scholar; Bourde, to Lebon, 10–11 July 1896Google Scholar, printed in Lebon, , pp. 222–5Google Scholar; P. Bourde, ‘Note sur les rapports du palais avec l'insurrection de l'Imerina’, no date, Archives Nationales Section Outre-Mer (ANSOM), Paris, MAD 215 (445); DAOM Mad. 2 Z 347: Voyron, to Laroche, , 25 June 1896Google Scholar; Service historique de l'Armée (SHA), Vincennes, Madagascar ancien fonds carton 9: Voyron, to ministre de la guerre, 11 June 1896.Google Scholar

¹⁸ ANSOM MAD 216 (447): Laroche, to Lebon, 14 June 1896Google Scholar. For the opinions of the army see SHA, Mad AF 68, letters from Lt. de Cointet; also, Commandant Reibell, , Le Commandant Lamy, d'après sa correspondance et ses souvenirs de campagne (Paris, 1903), 306–59.Google Scholar

¹⁹ ANSOM MAD 216 (453), passim, has a collection of relevant press-cuttings.

²⁰ SHA, Mad. AF44: Lebon, to General Billot, 25 March 1896.Google Scholar

²¹ Brunet, L., L'œuvre de la France à Madagascar (Paris, 1903)Google Scholar, passim. Brunet was one of the deputies for Réunion.

²² Deschamps, H., Histoire de Madagascar (4th ed., Paris, 1972), p. 236Google Scholar, note 1.

²³ Berthier, H., ‘Le protectorat’; Gautier, E-F., Trois Héros (Paris, 1931), pp. 67–139Google Scholar; Carol, J. (pseud.), Chez les Hovas (Au pays rouge), (Paris, 1898)Google Scholar. Cf. Ayache, , ‘Introduction à l'œuvre de Rainandriamampandry’.Google Scholar

²⁴ ‘Exécution du Ministre de l'Intérieur et du Prince Ratsimamanga’, chapter XV of Laroche's memoirs. This text forms the basis for the following discussion of the trial.

²⁵ ibid., p. 61 of typed draft.

²⁶ According to Laroche, Madame, her father-in-law's memoirs were written after 1904.Google Scholar

²⁷ Archives of the United States' consulate at Tamatave (US Consular), vol. x. Original in Washington. Microfilm copy in Archives Nationales (Arch. Nat.), Paris, 253Google Scholar Mi 40: Welter, to Rockhill, , 19 October 1896Google Scholar; Grosclaude, E., Un parisien à Madagascar (2nd ed., Paris, 1898), 94–96Google Scholar; Grosclaude, was probably also the author of the account in Le Figaro, 29 October 1896.Google Scholar

²⁸ Cf. ANSOM MAD 215 (445): Gallieni, to Lebon, , 10 October 1896Google Scholar; Deschamps, H., Histoire de Madagascar, p. 235.Google Scholar

²⁹ ANSOM MAD 216 (453): Laroche, to Lebon, , 20 July 1896.Google Scholar

³⁰ Carol, , Chez les Hovas, 272–4.Google Scholar

³¹ Gautier, , Trois Héros, 67–139.Google Scholar

³² US Consular, vol. X (Arch. Nat. 253 Mi 40): Welter, to Rockhill, , 19 October and 3 December 1896Google Scholar; Lamy, to Giraud, , 3 December 1896Google Scholar, printed in Reibell, , Le Commandant Lamy, p. 359Google Scholar; Solofo, P., Hitako ny nitifirana an-dRainandriamampandry sy Ratsimamanga (Tananarive, 1959), 14–15.Google Scholar

³³ Brunet, , L'œuvre de la France, 377Google Scholaret seq.

³⁴ Rainianjanoro, , Fampandrian-tany sy tantara maro samy hafa (Tananarive, 1920), 11–12Google Scholar; papers, Lyautey, ancien classement 455Google Scholar: Lyautey, to chef de poste de Morafeno, 12 May 1897.Google Scholar

³⁵ Rainianjanoro, , Fampandrian-tany, 12–16Google Scholar; Rainianjanoro, ‘Histoire de ce que Rainianjanoro 15 hrs. a fait dans la pacification du pays à Madagascar’, 1 March 1899, Lyautey papers, a. cl. 445.

³⁶ Lyautey papers, a. cl. 445: Rasanjy, to Rainianjanoro, , 22 May 1897Google Scholar; a. cl. 31: Rémond, to Lyautey, , 8 October 1897.Google Scholar

³⁷ Below, note 46.

³⁸ Lyautey papers, a. cl. 455: Lyautey, to Rémond, , 28 May 1897.Google Scholar

³⁹ Lyautey papers, a. cl. 453/1: Lyautey, to Gallieni, , 1 June 1897.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ ibid.

⁴¹ Lyautey, to his brother, 24 May 1897Google Scholar, [sic], printed in Lyautey, L. H. G., Lettres du Tonkin et de Madagascar (2nd ed.Paris, 1921), 537–9Google Scholar. It is evident that the account was written many years later, and may have been deliberately misleading. Rémond, is misspelt ‘Raymond’; Lyautey was not at Antsatrana on 24 May 1897Google Scholar; nor is the date of the surrender correct.

⁴² Lyautey papers, a. cl. 452/2: Lyautey, to Rémond, , 11 June 1897.Google Scholar

⁴³ Lyautey papers, a. cl. 455: Lyautey, to Gallieni, , 14 June 1897Google Scholar. Lyautey's italics.

⁴⁴ Lyautey papers, a. cl. 446: Rabezavana, to Rémond, , 15 July 1897Google Scholar; ANSOM MAD 438 (1203): same to same, 16 July 1897Google Scholar, annexe no. 1 to Gallieni's, political report of 26 August 1897.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ The other letters are: ‘Déposition de Rainibetsimisaraka’, 26 July 1897Google Scholar, annexe no. 2 to Gallieni's, report of 26 August 1897Google Scholar, ANSOM MAD 438 (1203); letters to and from Rabozaka annexed to H. Berthier, ‘Le protectorat’, in Bull, de l'Acad. Malg.; ‘Déclaration de Rabozaka’, no date, annexed to Gallieni's, report of 27 March 1898Google Scholar, ANSOM MAD 374 (1015).

⁴⁶ SHA, Mad. nouveau fonds 15/28(2)/17: note on Rainianjanoro, ; Journal Officiel de Madagascar et Dépendances, ccxxxvi (16 04 1898), 1727–8.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Rapport d'ensemble, 14.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ For example, ‘Rapport du tournée du Gouverneur-Général dans le Betsileo’, 13 September-6 October 1897Google Scholar, DAOM Mad. 2 D 95. The bulk of Gallieni's private papers remains with his family and is not available for consultation, but there is much of interest in the archives départementales de l'Orne, Le Myre de Vilers papers, dossier 29: letters from Gallieni, 1896–1904.

⁴⁹ ‘Exécution du Ministre de l'Intérieur et du Prince Ratsimamanga’, 63–4Google Scholar, Laroche papers; Matthews, T. T., Thirty Years in Madagascar (2nd ed., London, 1904), 319–20.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ DAOM Mad. 6(10) D 1.

⁵¹ LeMyre de Vilers papers.dossier 29: Gallieni, to LeMyre de Vilers, 12 November 1898.Google Scholar

⁵² DAOM Mad. 2 Z 326: memorandum by Ranchot, , 14 October 1895.Google Scholar

⁶³ ANSOM MAD 216(447): Laroche, to ministre des colonies, 25 February 1896Google Scholar. Enclosed is a French translation of the letter, dated 1 February 1896.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ ‘La lettre au gouverneur d'Ambohimanga’, typescript of 6 pages, Laroche papers.

⁵⁵ ANSOM MAD 216 (453): Laroche, to Lebon, 20 July 1896.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ ‘Rapport de Monsieur le Commandant Gérard, Chef d'Etat-Major, sur la déposition de la Reine’, March 1897Google Scholar, enclosed with Gallieni's report of 12 March 1897Google Scholar, ANSOM MAD 438(1201).

⁵⁷ ANSOM MAD 216(447): Gautier, to Laroche, , 1 June 1896Google Scholar, annexe no. 1 to Laroche's report of 13 June 1896.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ For intelligence reports warning of the approaching insurrection, see DAOM MAD. 2 Z 332 and 2 Z 364.

⁵⁹ ANSOM MAD 216 (447): Laroche, to ministre des colonies, 28 March 1896Google Scholar. A copy of the letter is enclosed: Ravaikafo, (Rabezavana) to Ramahatra, 22 Alohotsy 1896.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Savaron, C., Mes souvenirs, 153 and 175Google Scholar. For a brief biography of Ramahatra, Chauvin, J., ‘Le Prince Ramahatra’, Revue d'histoire des colonies, xxvii, ii (1939), 33–46.Google Scholar

⁶¹ DAOM Mad. 6(2) D3: Rainimafana, to Ramasoandromahamay (Rabozaka), 16Google ScholarAdimizana 1896.Google Scholar

⁶² On the circumstances surrounding the reception of the letter see SHA, Mad. NF 8/3/15: Ramahatra, to secrétaire-général, 19 March 1896Google Scholar; Berthier, H., ‘Le protectorat’, 128Google Scholar; Berthier papers, Académie des Sciences d'Outre-mer, Paris: Ramahatra, to Rasanjy, , 19 March 1896Google Scholar, and Ramahatra, to Gallieni, , 19 October 1896.Google Scholar

⁶³ The evidence of the messenger who carried the letter to Ramahatra also throws doubt on the existence of any similar letter from Rabezavana to Rainandriamampandry. ‘Déclaration du messager qui a porté la lettre au Prince Ramahatra…’, March 1896Google Scholar, SHA, Mad. NF 8/3/15.

⁶⁴ For example, SHA, Mad. NF 8/3/29: Staup, Captain to Voyron, , 7 April 1896.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ DAOM Mad. 2 Z 361: Oudri, Colonel to Voyron, 8 April 1896Google Scholar, and ‘Rapport du Général Oudri’, 8 May 1896Google Scholar. The translation from the Malagasy is mine.

⁶⁶ Ambodirano was the scene of an unsuccessful rising in November 1895.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ DAOM Mad. 2 Z 361: Oudri, to Voyron, , 8 April 1896.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ SHA, Mad. AF 26: Oudri, to ministre de la guerre, 25 August 1896.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Laroche papers: Besson, to Laroche, , 4 and 12 June 1896Google Scholar, quoted in part in Pascal, R., ‘Les rapports de quinzaine’, pt. 1, Bull, de Madag. ccxlv (October 1966), 951Google Scholar, note 1.

⁷⁰ ANSOM MAD 215 (445): Besson, to Gallieni, 24 November 1896Google Scholar, annexe no. 6 to Gallieni's report of 13 December 1896.Google Scholar

⁷¹ Lyautey papers, a. cl. 35: Besson, to Lyautey, , 26 June 1903.Google Scholar

⁷² DAOM Mad. 2 Z 386, ‘Journal de la résidence de Betafo’, entries for 4 and 8 June 1896Google Scholar; Laroche papers: Besson, to Laroche, , 4 June 1896Google Scholar. See also the extracts from the Norsk Missionstidende translated into French in enclosures with Hanotaux to Lebon, 31 July 1896Google Scholar, ANSOM MAD 348 (931).

⁷³ There are menalamba letters scattered in several archives in France and Madagascar, but the main collections are in DAOM Mad. 6 (2) D 3, and in the Archives de la République Malgache (ARM), Tananarive, series NN91. Both consist mostly of letters captured from Rabozaka towards the end of 1897.

⁷⁴ Laroche papers: Rafaralahimanavanana to Rainiketamanga and others, 19 Asorotany 1896Google Scholar (French translation).

⁷⁵ For example, DAOM Mad. 6 (2) D3: Ranjiva, to Ramahamay (Rabozaka), 12 Alahasaty 1896.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ DAOM Mad. 2 Z 387: Alby, to Laroche, , 31 August 1896.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ On Rainijirika, Laroche papers: note by résident-inspecteur Pradon, 5 September 1896Google Scholar. On Ramenamaso, , Savaron, Mes souvenirs, 216–17.Google Scholar

⁷⁸ For example, ARM NN 91: Ralaifanenitra to Ramasoandromahamay (Rabozaka), 22 Adizaoza 1896.Google Scholar

⁷⁹ ‘Proclamation d'un chef rebelle du Cercle d'Ambatomanga’, no date, annexe no. 2 to Gallieni's report of 13 December 1896, ANSOM MAD 215 (445).

⁸⁰ There is a play on words between ‘Farantsay’ (‘French’) and ‘Fara-tay’ (literally, ‘the last excrement’). The menalamba often used this insulting pun.

⁸¹ It was a common belief among the rebels that the old prime minister, Rainilaiarivony, had been killed by the French. In fact he died of natural causes in exile in Algiers.

⁸² Cf. Chapus, G. S. and Ratsimba, E., Histoire des Rois (4 vols., Paris, 1953–1958), iv, 345Google Scholar. This is the French translation of Père Callet's Tantaran' ny Andriana. I am grateful to Françoise Raison for supplying this reference and also for drawing my attention to the influence of The Pilgrim's Progress.

⁸³ Ellis, W., The Martyr Church: a Narrative of the Introduction, Progress and Triumph of Christianity in Madagascar (London, 1870), p. 107.Google Scholar

⁸⁴ DAOM Mad. 6 (4) D 16,‘dossier Peill’: proclamation by Rabezavana, , 12 November 1896.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ There is a fine discussion of the Merina concept of political authority in Delivré, A., L'histoire des rois d'Imerina (Paris, 1974), 139–74.Google Scholar

⁸⁶ Raison, F., ‘Les ramanenjana’, Asie du sud-est et le monde insulindien, vii, ii-iii (1976), 271–93Google Scholar. Delval, R., Radama II, prince de la renaissance malgache (Paris, 1972), 732–918Google Scholar, provides evidence that Radama 11 really did lead the insurgents of 1863Google Scholar. Raison's, Madame view is the more convincing because the rebels of 1863Google Scholar, like those of 1896 and 1947, probably needed to believe that their movement was supported by a legitimate authority.

⁸⁷ DAOM Mad. 2 Z 105, kabary of Queen Ranavalona II, June 1877Google Scholar (French translation). ‘Je sais que les fauteurs de troubles mettent mon nom en avant pour entraîner lesgens à leur suite. Ils mentent; ce sont des ennemis de moi et du royaume eux et ceux quiles écoutent; ils seront punis comme rebelles.’

⁸⁸ Tronchon, J., L'insurrection malgache de 1947 (Paris, 1974), 82–118.Google Scholar

⁸⁹ DAOM Mad. 6 (2) D 3: Ramialanenina, to Ramasoandromahamay, (Rabozaka), 10 Adimizana 1896Google Scholar; ARM NN91: Ralaifanenitra, to Ramasoandromahamay, (Rabozaka), 8 Asorotany 1896.Google Scholar

⁹⁰ Lyautey papers, a. cl. 445: ‘Patriote 16e honneur’ to Rabezavana, 18 July 1896Google Scholar (French translation). Added doubt is attached to the authorship of the letter by the pencilled notes in the margin. By the signature an unknown hand (Lyautey?) has written ‘Randriamampandry’ [sic]. In the margin is written ‘lettre de Randriamampandry—est-ce copie ou de mémoire?’.

⁹¹ Gautier, Notably, Trois Héros, 132–3.Google Scholar

⁹² There is an incomplete list of such casualties in Laroche, to Lebon, 10 July 1896, printed in Pascal, pt. IV, p. 89Google Scholar, note 1.

⁹³ For some examples, see ‘Notice concernant la région d'Andriamena’, no date, DAOM Mad. 6 (9) D 27; archives of the London Missionary Society (LMS), London, Madagascar incoming letters 26/2/A: Sibree, to Thompson, , 22 April 1896Google Scholar; DAOM Mad. 6 (2) D 3: Rainimafana, and others to Ramasoandromahamay (Rabozaka), 19 Asombola 1896.Google Scholar

⁹⁴ Decree of Ranavalona III, 22 August 1896Google Scholar, DAOM Mad. 6 (10) D 1. On Rainandriamampandry's wealth, ‘Exécution du Ministre de l'Intérieur et du Prince Ratsimamanga’, Laroche papers.

⁹⁵ The comparison with the Dreyfus affair is an interesting one. The issues at stake between pro-and anti-military factions were similar in both cases. Laroche in chapter XV of his unpublished memoirs makes specific allusion to Dreyfus. It is ironic that one of the original charges against Dreyfus was that he had sold plans for the organization of the Madagascar expedition of 1894–5!

⁹⁶ Matthews, T. T. (trans.), ‘Among the Fahavalo: perils and adventures of a prisoner for fourteen months in the rebel camp’, Antananarivo Annual, vi (1897), 80–93.Google Scholar

⁹⁷ Berthier papers: Penel to Laroche, 3–4 August 1896.Google Scholar

⁹⁸ DAOM Mad. 6 (4) D 52: Besson, to Gallieni, , 10 February 1899.Google Scholar

⁹⁹ Tronchon, , L'insurrection malgache, p. 24.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁰ The main protestant archives relating to the religious troubles are the LMS (London) and the Société des Missions Evangéliques (Paris). See also DAOM 6 (4) D 50–1. The Jesuit archives, which represent the catholic view, are surprisingly thin for this period.

¹⁰¹ Matthews, , Thirty Years, 324.Google Scholar

¹⁰² Le Myre de Vilers papers, dossier 29: Gallieni to Le Myre de Vilers, passim.

¹⁰³ Cf. Fenard, G., Les indigènes fonctionnaires à Madagascar (Paris, 1939), 239–40Google Scholar; Deschamps, H., Les migrations intérieures à Madagascar (Paris, 1959), 90Google Scholar; Archer, R., Madagascar depuis 1972 (Paris, 1976)Google Scholar, passim.