¹ For more detailed treatment of the 1844–1930 period, see Parsons, Q. N., ‘The economic history of Khama's Country in southern Africa’, African Social Research, xviii (12 1974), 643–75.Google Scholar

² Johnson, F. W. F., Great Days. The Autobiography of an Empire Pioneer (London, 1940), 130Google Scholar; Churchill, Randolph, Men, Mines and Animals in South Africa (London, 1893) 319.Google Scholar

³ Parsons, , ‘The economic history of Khama's Country’, 662–3.Google Scholar

⁴ ibid., 667–70.

⁵ Ettinger, Stephen, ‘South Africa's weight restrictions on cattle exports from Bechuanaland, 1924–41’, Botswana Notes and Records, iv (1972), 21–9.Google Scholar

⁶ Though built in 1897, the railway was closed in 1899–1900 by war: cf. Croxton, A. H., Railways of Rhodesia (Newton Abbot, 1973), 46–57.Google Scholar

⁷ Ettinger, , ‘South Africa's weight restrictions’Google Scholar; Robson, Peter, ‘Economic integration in Southern Africa’, Journal of Modern African Studies, v, 5 (1967), 469–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hermans, Quill, ‘Botswana's options for independent existence’, in Cervenka, Zdenek (ed.), Land-Locked Countries of Africa (Uppsala, 1973), 197–211Google Scholar; Hermans, Q., ‘Towards budgetary independence: a review of Botswana's financial history, 1900 to 1973’, Botswana Notes and Records, vi (1974), 89–115Google Scholar; Landell-Mills, P. M., ‘The 1969 Southern African Customs Union Agreement’ Journal of Modern African Studies, IX, 2 (1971), 263–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁸ Cf. Phimister, Ian, ‘Rhodes, Rhodesia, and the Rand’ University of London, Institute of Commonwealth Studies, seminar paper SSA/73/10Google Scholar; Denoon, Donald, A Grand Illusion. The Failure of Imperial Policy in the Transvaal Colony During the Period of Reconstruction 1900–05 (London, 1973)Google Scholar; Dachs, Anthony, ‘Rhodes's grasp for Bechuanaland 1880–1896’, Rhodesian History, II (1971), 1–9Google Scholar

⁹ E.g. Bundy, Colin, ‘The emergence and decline of a South African peasantry’ African Affairs, LXXI, 285 (10 1972), 369–88CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kosmin, Barry, ‘The Inyoka tobacco industry of the Shangwe people’, African Social Research, XVII (06 1974), 554–77.Google Scholar

¹⁰ See Ranger, Terence, ‘The Ethiopian episode in Barotseland, 1900–1905’, Rhodes-Livingstone Journal, xxxvii (06 1965), 26–41.Google Scholar

¹¹ Sillery, Anthony, Botswana. A Short Political History (London, 1974), 52.Google Scholar

¹² Mockford, Julian, Khama: King of the Bamangwato (London, 1931), 179.Google Scholar

¹³ Holbech, Young & Sadler (Hove, Sussex) to Khama, 18 07 1912Google Scholar, Khama Papers (Serowe). The origin and result of the letter are unknown. The firm destroyed its records of that period in the 1960s: Young, Henderson & Sadler to Parsons, 29 Sept. 1971.

¹⁴ Jousse, Paul (pseud. ‘Inquisitor’) in Sunday Times (Johannesburg), 8 03 1914.Google Scholar ‘Khama & Co.’ has no relation to the Khama firm of haulage contractors in London S.E. 27. The firm was named after the original location of its garage in Khama Road, S.W. 17. (Personal communication.) See note 64 below re ‘Jousse Trouble’.

¹⁵ Garrett, R. (Serowe) to Acting Resident Commissioner (R.C.), 29 02 1916Google Scholar, File J.978 (old series): Botswana National Archives (B.N.A.), Gaborone. (Files J.978 and J.978A cited in this article have since been amalgamated into S.29/5/1).

¹⁶ R.C. to Assistant Resident Magistrate (A.R.M.) Serowe, 9 June 1910, J.978. (B.N.A.)

¹⁷ Gaopotlhake, to Liddel, , 5 10 1910 (Khama Papers).Google Scholar

¹⁸ Khama, (Serowe) to High Commissioner (H.C.), 28 03 1916, J.978A. (B.N.A.).Google Scholar

¹⁹ Jousse, Paul (pseud. ‘Inquisitor’), Khama the King: Truth about the Bechuanas (Johannesburg, 1914), 25.Google Scholar

²⁰ One thinks of the response of the white trading community towards crises in the Ngwato Reserve in the 1930s (the ‘flogging’ of Mackintosh), the 1940s and 1950s (the Seretse marriage dispute), and the early 1960s (the advance to Independence).

²¹ Saron, Gustav and Hotz, Louis (eds.), The Jews in South Africa: a History (Cape Town, 1955), 250 ff.Google Scholar

²² Parsons, , ‘The economic history of Khama's Country’, 667.Google Scholar

²³ See S.29/2 (B.N.A.).

²⁴ Smith, G. W. to , L.M.S., 1 03 1923Google Scholar (encl. in Jones, Neville to , L.M.S., 28 03 1923Google Scholar). London Missionary Society Archives (L.M.S.A.), Congregational Council for World Mission, now in S.O.A.S. library, University of London. Some gauge of the £22–23,000 profit of the company may be had from comparison with total government expenditure on District Administration for the whole of the Bechuanaland Protectorate between 1910 and 1916—£28,750. (Revenue from Hut Tax totalled £208,687 in the same period; there was no income tax on whites until 1922). Source: S.294/7 (B.N.A.).

²⁵ Acting R.C. to H.C., 15 01 and 5 04 1916, J.978A (B.N.A.).Google Scholar

²⁶ Jousse, to Acting R.C., 19 09 1913, J.978 (B.N.A.).Google Scholar

²⁷ B.T.A. profits ran to £22,146 in 1895–6. Cf. Parsons, , ‘The economic history of Khama's Country’, 658.Google Scholar

²⁸ Statement of Casalis, A. H., 26 02 1903 (Khama Papers)Google Scholar; Ratshosa, Simon, ‘My Book on Bechuanaland Protectorate’ (MSS.), p. 211 (B.N.A.).Google Scholar

²⁹ Khama, to , R. C., 28 08 1902 (Khama Papers).Google Scholar

³⁰ S.29/8 (B.N.A.).

³¹ Khama, to Casalis, , 25 12 1911 (Khama Papers).Google Scholar

³² Khama, to Jousse, , 9 04 1912 (Khama Papers).Google Scholar

³³ Acting R.C. to H.C., 11 1915Google Scholar; Sloley, to H.C., 10 12 1915, J.978A (B.N.A.).Google Scholar Cf. Jousse, , Khama the King, 20–1.Google Scholar

³⁴ Jousse, to Acting R.C., 19 09 1913, J.978 (B.N.A.).Google Scholar

³⁵ R.C. to H.C., 18 11 1913, 9 04 1914, and 13 10 1915Google Scholar; Francistown, A. C. to R.C., 4 05 1914Google Scholar, ibid.

³⁶ Acting R.C. to Jousse, , 5 11 1913Google Scholar, ibid.

³⁷ Jousse, to Acting R.C., 13 11 1913Google Scholar, ibid.

³⁸ Jousse, to Acting R.C., 14 11 1913Google Scholar, ibid.

³⁹ The B.S.A. Company was certainly pressing for the incorporation of the Tati District—the area round Francistown—into Southern Rhodesia at this time, and a subsidiary of the B.S.A. Company was in process of opening up copper mining in Khama's Country. Cf. C.O. 879/No. 1003 (Public Record Office, London). On the 1894–5 incorporation attempt into Rhodesia, see Dachs, ‘Rhodes's grasp for Bechuanaland’; Parsons, Q. N., ‘Khama III, the Bamangwato, and the British’ (Ph.D., University of Edinburgh, 1973), 88–120. (Copies in B.N.A.; S.O.A.S.).Google Scholar

⁴⁰ A.C. to R.C., 24 Jan. 1914, J.978 (B.N.A.).

⁴¹ R.C. to Assistant Commissioner (A. C.) Francistown, 27 01 1914Google Scholar, ibid.

⁴² Eastern Province Herald (Port Elizabeth), 16 04, 1 05 and 6 05 1914Google Scholar; Jennings, A. E., ‘Khama's Country’ Sunday Times (Johannesburg), 16 04 and 3 05 1914Google Scholar. (Reprinted in Diamond Fields Advertiser Weekly edn., 16 04 1914Google Scholar). See also Christian Express (Lovedale), 1 07 1916.Google Scholar

⁴³ Francistown, A. C. to R.C., 4 05 1914Google Scholar; Ag. R.C. to H.C. 17 Nov. 1915, J.978 (B.N.A.).

⁴⁴ Francistown, A. C. to R.C., 4 05 1914Google Scholar, ibid.

⁴⁵ R.C. to H.C., 8 05 1914Google Scholar, ibid. In a subsequent letter he added: ‘There has never been a case of friction in Khama's country except in that of the Bechuanaland Trading Association, and all traders are unanimous in their testimony as to the courteous treatment they have received from the Chief and his Council.’ R.C. to H.C., 23 05 1915Google Scholar, ibid.

⁴⁶ H.C. to R.C., 16 and 18 06 1914Google Scholar; R.C. to Khama, , 31 08 1914.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ R.C. to H.C., 20 10 1914Google Scholar, ibid.

⁴⁸ Cape of Good Hope Nos. 15 of 1856, 18 of 1873, 7 of 1875, 30 of 1889—substantively adopted in Laws of the Bechuanaland Protectorate, 1891.

⁴⁹ Khama, to R.C., 26 02 1915, J.978 (B.N.A.).Google Scholar

⁵⁰ ibid.

⁵¹ R.C. to Acting Resident Magistrate (R.M.), 24 02 1915Google Scholar; Acting R.M. Serowe to R.C., 28 02 1915Google Scholar, ibid.

⁵² Khama to R.C., 26 02 1915Google Scholar, ibid.

⁵³ R.C. to B.T.A., 20 03 1915Google Scholar, Government Secretary (G.S.) to Jousse, 20 Mar. 1915, ibid.

⁵⁴ Acting R.M. Serowe to R.C., 6 05 1915Google Scholar; Acting R.C. to H.C., 17 11 1915Google Scholar, ibid.

⁵⁵ Acting R.C. to H.C., 17 11 1915Google Scholar, ibid.; R.C. to Chappell, , 19 08 1915, J.978A (B.N.A.).Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Acting R.M. to H.C., 22 07 1915Google Scholar; Chappell, to Panzera, (private), 14 07 1915, S29/5/1 (B.N.A.).Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Acting R.M. to H.C., 24 July 1915, J.978A (B.N.A.).

⁵⁸ Khama, to R.C., 22 07 1915Google Scholar, ibid.

⁵⁹ R.C. to Khama, , 29 07 1915Google Scholar, ibid. A month before, Panzera had written privately to Khama saying that he must ‘make a show of enquiring into things’ that the B.T.A. complained of, and implying that the British South Africa Company hated him (Panzera) for foiling their plans: Panzera, to Khama, , 27 06 1915 (Khama Papers).Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Chappell, to R.C., 4 08 1915, J.978A (B.N.A.).Google Scholar

⁶¹ R.C. to Chappell, , 19 08 1915Google Scholar, ibid.

⁶² R.C. to H.C., 13 10 1915Google Scholar, ibid.

⁶³ Acting R.C. to Khama, , 13 11 1915Google Scholar; H.C. to Khama, , 11 11 1915Google Scholar; Acting R.C. to H.C., 17 11 1915Google Scholar, ibid.

⁶⁴ Acting R.C. to H.C. 17 11 1915Google Scholar, ibid. Rev. Willoughby, W. C. (to L.M.S., 25 04 1916)Google Scholar thought Government had closed Garrett, Smith & Co. after private pressure from all traders in the Bamangwato Reserve, who feared being swamped by the Chief's stores—but there is no evidence to this effect in B.P. Government files or elsewhere. Willoughby wrote to his fellow missionary a few days later: ‘The Chartered Company may be behind it… They may be wanting to weaken Khama for some bigger plan of their own after the war is over.’ Willoughby therefore advised that Khama should concede: better to bend before the Company now than be broken later–Willoughby to Lewis, 2 May 1916 (Willoughby Papers No. 742, Selly Oak Colleges Library, Birmingham). An anonymous manuscript, forwarded to the L.M.S. apparently at Khama's request (Lewis, to L.M.S. 12 02 1916Google Scholar), ‘The Jousse Trouble’, dated Serowe 21 June 1915—possibly by John Ratshosa—also concluded that Jousse's ‘main object’ was to replace Imperial rule of the B.P. by Rhodesia or the Union, and added that Jousse had indeed gained some support among Ngwato by flouting Khama's beer laws. Panzera's ominous references to the Union and the B.S.A. Company in his private letter to Khama of 27 June 1915 would have been further fuel to the fire of Khama's suspicions (Khama Papers).

⁶⁵ H.C. to Acting R.C., 6 01 1916Google Scholar; SirSloley, H. C. to H.C., 10 12 1915Google Scholar; Sloley, Chappell, 7 12 1915, J.978A (B.N.A.).Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Sloley, to MacGregor, , 24 02 1916Google Scholar, ibid.

⁶⁷ Sloley, to H.C., 10 12 1915Google Scholar, ibid.

⁶⁸ H.C. to Acting R.C., 6 01 1916Google Scholar, ibid.

⁶⁹ Chappell, to H.C., 3 02 1916Google Scholar, ibid.

⁷⁰ Chappell, to H.C., 7 02 1916Google Scholar, ibid.

⁷¹ H.C. to Acting R.C., 18 02 1916Google Scholar; Imperial Secretary to Chappell, , 17 02 1916Google Scholar, ibid.

⁷² Acting R.C. to H.C., 23 02 1916Google Scholar, ibid.

⁷³ Garrett, R. J. to Acting R.C., 29 02 1916Google Scholar, ibid.

⁷⁴ Acting R.C. to Garrett, , 3 03 1916Google Scholar; Acting R.C. to Khama, , 3 03 1916Google Scholar, ibid.

⁷⁵ Acting R.M. Serowe to Acting R.C., 2 03 1916Google Scholar; B.T.A. to Acting R.M. Serowe, 2 03 1916Google Scholar, ibid.

⁷⁶ A.C. to R.C., 4 05 1916Google Scholar, ibid.

⁷⁷ Chappell, to H.C., 11 03 1916Google Scholar, ibid.

⁷⁸ Chappell, to Imperial Secretary, 4 04 1916Google Scholar, ibid. Casalis was transferred from Serowe, to Macloutsie—R.C. to H.C., 18 07 1916Google Scholar, ibid. The B.T.A. sold out its interests in the Ngwato Reserve in 1928, mostly to R. A. Bailey: Mockford, , Seretse Khama, 179Google Scholar; Interview with Minnie Shaw, Palapye, 18 Sept. 1969.

⁷⁹ Khama, to H.C., 28 03 1916Google Scholar, J.978A (B.N.A.); Lewis, to L.M.S., 4 04 1916 (L.M.S.A.)Google Scholar; Lewis, to Willoughby, , 25 04 1916 (Willoughby Papers).Google Scholar

⁸⁰ Even the missionary Haydon Lewis, who forwarded a copy to the L.M.S., did not grasp its full significance: cf. Lewis, to L.M.S., 15 08 1916.Google Scholar

⁸¹ Acting R.C. to H.C., 5 and 8 04 1916Google Scholar; H.C. to Acting H.C., 14 04 1916, J.978A (B.N.A.).Google Scholar

⁸² H.C. to Khama, , 13 04 1916Google Scholar, ibid.

⁸³ H.C. to C.O., 13 05 1916Google Scholar; C.O. to H.C., 29 05 1916Google Scholar; H.C. to R.C., 31 07 1916Google Scholar, ibid; R.C. to Khama, , 9 08 1916 (Khama Papers).Google Scholar

⁸⁴ ‘Khama. Some personal impressions. A peaceful chief’, The Times (London), 28 02 1923, 13.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ Lewis, to L.M.S., 2 06 1916 (L.M.S.A.)Google Scholar; Khama, to Jas. Haskins, 17 01 1916 (Khama Papers).Google Scholar

⁸⁶ R.C. to H.C., 18 07 1916, J.978A (B.N.A.).Google Scholar See also Lewis, to L.M.S., 2 06 1916 (L.M.S.A.).Google Scholar

⁸⁷ Ratshosa, , ‘My Book’, 201–3 (B.N.A.).Google Scholar

⁸⁸ Declaration of Khama, witnessed by Ratshosa, Obeditse and Fosdisch, E., 7 01 1922 (copy), S.29/5/2 (B.N.A.).Google Scholar

⁸⁹ Garrett, Simth, & Co. to Standard Bank, Mafeking, 6 02 1922Google Scholar; Serowe, A.R.M. to G.S., 7 04 1922Google Scholar; Ellenberger, J. to Michin & Kelly, 23 06 1922Google Scholar; R.C. to H.C., 14 01 1927, S.29/5/2 (B.N.A.).Google Scholar

⁹⁰ Harris, John Charles, Khama the Great African Chief (London, 1922), 104Google Scholar, confirmed by Lewis to L.M.S., 20 Jan. 1923 (L.M.S.A.); Ratshosa, , ‘My Book’, 201–3 (B.N.A.).Google Scholar

⁹¹ Minchin, & Kelly to G.S., 13 12 1926Google Scholar; Francistown, A. C. to R.C., 11 01 1927Google Scholar; H.C. to R.C., 3 02 1927, S.29/5/2 (B.N.A.).Google Scholar

⁹² See note II above.

⁹³ See protest of Ngwato headmen to R.C., 23 Aug. 1924, against the government's ‘new system of protecting traders to monopolise’—when it overruled Ngwato permission to new traders to set up stores. They asserted that ‘competition is a good thing’ to raise prices given for agricultural produce ‘in support to Tribal revenue’ and for Hut Tax; S.7/1/2 (B.N.A.).

⁹⁴ Cf. Tordoff, W., ‘Local administration in Botswana’, Journal of Administration Overseas, XII 4 (10 1973), 179–80.Google Scholar

⁹⁵ Schapera, Isaac, Tribal Innovators. Tswana Chiefs and Social Change 1795–1940 (London, 1970), 80–1.Google Scholar

⁹⁶ Benson, Mary, Tshekedi Khama (London, 1960), 70–9.Google Scholar See also Parsons, Q. N., ‘Shots for a black republic? Simon Ratshosa and Botswana nationalism’, African Affairs, LXXIII, 293 (10 1974), 451.Google Scholar

⁹⁷ Francistown, A. C. to R.C., 11 01 1927.Google Scholar

⁹⁸ Willoughby, to L.M.S., 25 04 1916 (L.M.S.A.).Google Scholar

⁹⁹ Cmd. 4368 of 1933, 17–18 (British Parliamentary Papers). The Native Advisory Council (officially 9th Session, in fact 10th) of 1929 was highly critical of the decision.

¹⁰⁰ H.C. to Colonial Office, received 28 Apr. 1913—C.O. 879/No. 1003, 8 (P.R.O.).