Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jkksz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T13:13:48.293Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Race, Space, and the Malayan Emergency: Expelling Malay Muslim Communism and Reconstituting Malaya's Racial State, 1945–1954

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 November 2021

Amrita Malhi
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article analyses the physical and discursive displacement of Malay Muslim advocates of a cosmopolitan and multiracial form of Malayan citizenship from the arena of “legitimate” national politics between the Second World War and the mid-1950s. It discusses the trajectory of the Malayan Left during this period, with a special focus on the work of Abdullah C. D., a Malay Muslim leader of the Malayan Communist Party (MCP). Abdullah's work included helping to build the Malay Nationalist Party of Malaya (PKMM) under the MCP's United Front strategy from 1945, creating the MCP's Department of Malay Work in 1946, and establishing the Tenth Regiment of the Malayan National Liberation Army (MNLA) in 1949. This work was essential to the MCP's outreach to Malay Muslims after Malaya's failed national revolution, which collapsed into racial conflict without achieving independence for the British colony. The Malayan Emergency was declared in 1948, and its military and social campaigns eliminated or displaced the MCP's leadership and much of the MNLA, including Abdullah and the rest of the Tenth Regiment, to Thailand by 1954. Despite his continued engagement with political movements in Malaya, Abdullah's vision for a new politics for Malay Muslims was effectively displaced into the realm of nostalgia. His ideas, outlined in MNLA pamphlets and periodicals like Tauladan (Exemplar), never made significant inroads in Malaya, whose racial state the Emergency re-established, using race to manage the threat to its interests posed by leftist politics.

Keywords

MalayaIslamEmergencyTenth RegimentMalayan Communist Party
Type
Article
Information
Itinerario , Volume 45 , Special Issue 3: Coercing Mobility: Territory and Displacement in the Politics of Southeast Asian Muslim Movements , December 2021 , pp. 435 - 459
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Research Institute for History, Leiden University

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Bibliography

Tenth Regiment, Malayan National Liberation Army. International Institute of Social History, Amsterdam. [TRA]Google Scholar
– “Kaum Atheist dan Kaum Theist Boleh Bekerjasama di Segi Politik Mengikut Jalan Socialism.”Google Scholar
– Kebenaran, 1955–57.Google Scholar
– “Membarui Gaya2 Parti.”Google Scholar
– “Memberbaiki Pelajaran Kita.”Google Scholar
– “Menentang Baku Parti.”Google Scholar
– “Pertentangan.”Google Scholar
– Pilihan Ucapan Kawan Pimpinan: Sempena Ulang Tahun Ke-10, Ke-20, Ke-30 Dan Ke-40 Berdirinya Rejimen Ke-10. [n.d.]Google Scholar
– Tauladan, vol. 1–8, 1955– [n.d.].Google Scholar
Abdullah, C. D. Darurat dan Kemerdekaan: Memperingati 50 Tahun Darurat Di Tanah Melayu. Hong Kong: Nan Dao Publisher, 1998.Google Scholar
Abdullah, C. D. The Memoirs of Abdullah C. D. Part One: The Movement until 1948. Petaling Jaya: Strategic Information and Research Development Centre, 2005.Google Scholar
“Asian Relations: Being a Report of the Proceedings and Documentation of the First Asian Relations Conference, New Delhi, March–April, 1947.” New Delhi, 1947.Google Scholar
Omar, Muhammad Sayuti, ed. “Mengunjungi Kampung Perdamaian Rejimen Ke-10—Komunis Melayu.” MSO Melayu, 30 August 2013.Google Scholar
Hussain, Mustapha. Malay Nationalism before UMNO. Translated by Mustapha, Insun Sony, edited by K. S., Jomo Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publications, 2005.Google Scholar
Akashi, Yoji. “The Japanese Occupation of Malaya.” In Southeast Asia under Japanese Occupation, edited by W, Alfred. McCoy. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, 1980.Google Scholar
Amoroso, Donna J. Traditionalism and the Ascendancy of the Malay Ruling Class in Colonial Malaya. Petaling Jaya: Strategic Information and Research Development Centre, 2014.Google Scholar
Arditti, Roger C. Counterinsurgency Intelligence and the Emergency in Malaya. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Omar, Ariffin. Bangsa Melayu: Concepts of Democracy and Community among the Malays, 1945–1950. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Bayly, C. A., and Harper, T. N.. Forgotten Armies: The Fall of British Asia, 1941–1945. London: Allen Lane, 2004.Google Scholar
Belogurova, Anna. The Comintern and Chinese Networks in Southeast Asia, 1890–1957. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019.Google Scholar
Blackburn, Kevin, and Hack, Karl. War Memory and the Making of Modern Malaysia and Singapore. Singapore: National University of Singapore Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bradley, Francis R. “Women, Violence, and Gender Dynamics during and after the Five Patani-Siam Wars, 1785–1838.” Itinerario 45:3 (2021).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kheng, Cheah Boon, ed. The Challenge of Ethnicity: Building a Nation in Malaysia. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish, 2004.Google Scholar
Kheng, Cheah Boon, ed. From PKI to the Comintern, 1924–1941: The Apprenticeship of the Malayan Communist Party. Ithaca, N.Y.: Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University, 1992.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kheng, Cheah Boon. “Japanese Army Policy toward the Chinese and Malay-Chinese Relations in Wartime Malaya.” In Southeast Asian Minorities in the Wartime Japanese Empire, edited by Kratoska, Paul H., 97–110. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2002.Google Scholar
Kheng, Cheah Boon. Malaysia: The Making of a Nation. Singapore: ISEAS, 2002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kheng, Cheah Boon. The Masked Comrades: A Study of the Communist United Front in Malaya, 1945–48. Singapore: Times Books International, 1979.Google Scholar
Kheng, Cheah Boon. Red Star over Malaya: Resistance and Social Conflict During and after the Japanese Occupation of Malaya, 1941–1946, 4th ed. Singapore: NUS Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kheng, Cheah Boon. “The Social Impact of the Japanese Occupation of Malaya (1942–1945).” In Southeast Asia under Japanese Occupation, edited by McCoy, Alfred W.. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, 1980.Google Scholar
Dreyfuss, Robert. Devil's Game: How the United States Helped Unleash Fundamentalist Islam. New York: Holt Paperbacks, 2005.Google Scholar
Noor, Farish A.. Islam Embedded: The Historical Development of the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party PAS, 1951–2003. Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Sociological Research Institute, 2004.Google Scholar
Fields, Gary. Enclosure: Palestinian Landscapes in a Historical Mirror. Oakland: University of California Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fogg, Kevin W. Indonesia's Islamic Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020.Google Scholar
Formichi, Chiara. “Displacing Political Islam in Indonesia.” Itinerario 45:3 (2021).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Formichi, Chiara. Islam and the Making of the Nation: Kartosuwiryo and Political Islam in Twentieth-Century Indonesia. Leiden: KITLV, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fujio, Hara. “The Malayan Communist Party and the Indonesian Communist Party: Features of Co-Operation.” Journal of Chinese Overseas 6 (2010): 216–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Funston, N. J. Malay Politics in Malaysia: A Study of the United Malays National Organisation and Party Islam. Kuala Lumpur: Heinemann Educational Books, 1980.Google Scholar
Gedacht, Joshua. “Exile, Mobility, and Re-territorialisation in Aceh and Colonial Indonesia.” Itinerario 45:3 (2021).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gedacht, Joshua. “The ‘Shaykh Al-Islam of the Philippines’ and Coercive Cosmopolitanism in an Age of Global Empire.” In Challenging Cosmopolitanism: Coercion, Mobility and Displacement in Islamic Asia, edited by Gedacht, Joshua and Michael Feener, R., 172–203. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2018.Google Scholar
Gedacht, Joshua, and Malhi, Amrita, ‘‘Introduction to Coercing Mobility: Territory and Displacement in the Politics of Southeast Asia.”, Itinerario 45:3 (2021).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldberg, David Theo. The Racial State. Malden: Blackwell, 2002.Google Scholar
Hack, Karl. Defence and Decolonisation in Southeast Asia: Britain, Malaya and Singapore 1941–1967. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 2001.Google Scholar
Hack, Karl. “Everyone Lived in Fear: Malaya and the British Way of Counter-Insurgency.” Small Wars & Insurgencies 23:4–5 (2012): 671–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hack, Karl. “Malaya—Between Two Terrors: People's History and the Malayan Emergency.” In Hearts and Minds: A People's History of Counterinsurgency, edited by Gurman, Hannah, 17–49. New York: The New Press, 2013.Google Scholar
Mohd Noor, Hafidzul Hilmi. “1,500 Join ICERD Protest in KL,” New Straits Times, 4 November 2018: https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2018/11/428229/1500-join-icerd-protest-kl.Google Scholar
Harper, T. N. The End of Empire and the Making of Malaya. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Harper, T. N., and Bayly, C. A.. Forgotten Wars: Freedom and Revolution in Southeast Asia. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Hiroyuki, Yamamoto, Anthony Milner, Kawashima Midori, and Kazuhiro, Arai, eds. Bangsa and Umma: Development of People-Grouping Concepts in Islamised Southeast Asia. Kyoto: Kyoto University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Horowitz, D. L. “Ethnic Power Sharing: Three Big Problems.” Journal of Democracy 25:2 (2014): 5–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kenneison, Rebecca. The Special Operations Executive in Malaya: World War II and the Path to Independence. London: Bloomsbury, 2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keo, Bernard Z. “A Small Distant War? Historiographical Reflections on the Malayan Emergency.” History Compass 17:3 (2019): 1–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kloos, David. “Dis/connection: Violence, Religion, and Geographic Imaginings in Aceh and Colonial Indonesia, 1890s–1920s.” Itinerario 45:3 (2021).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kratoska, Paul H. The Japanese Occupation of Malaya and Singapore, 1941–45. Singapore: NUS Press, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salleh, Lamry Mohamed. “A History of the Tenth Regiment's Struggles.” Inter-Asia Cultural Studies 16:1 (2015): 42–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lau, Albert. “Introduction: Southeast Asia and the Cold War.” In Southeast Asia and the Cold War, edited by Lau, Albert, 1–12. London: Routledge, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lijphart, Arend. Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977.Google Scholar
Mauzy, Diane K., and Milne, R. S.. Malaysian Politics under Mahathir. London: Routledge, 1999.Google Scholar
Milner, Anthony. The Malays. Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.Google Scholar
Milner, Anthony, and Ting, Helen. “Race and Its Competing Paradigms.” In Transforming Malaysia: Dominant and Competing Paradigms, edited by Milner, Anthony Crothers, Embong, Abdul Rahman, and Tham, Siew Yean. Bangi: Institut Kajian Malaysia dan Antarabangsa, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ooi, Keat Gin. “Borne of the Cold War: Malaya/Malaysia from a Historical Perspective.” Suvannabhumi 8:2 (2016): 79–111.Google Scholar
Poulgrain, Greg. The Genesis of Konfrontasi: Malaysia, Brunei and Indonesia, 1945–1965. Petaling Jaya: Strategic Information & Research Development Centre, 1952.Google Scholar
Prashad, Vijay. The Darker Nations: A People's History of the Third World. New York: New Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Razak, Radzi. “DAP a Party of Modern Communists? Don't Believe Social Media Attacks, Says Kit Siang.” Malay Mail, 26 October 2019: https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2019/10/26/dap-a-party-of-modern-communists-dont-believe-social-media-attacks-says-kit/1804050.Google Scholar
Saravanamuttu, Johan. Power Sharing in a Divided Nation: Mediated Communalism and New Politics in Six Decades of Malaysia's Elections. Singapore: ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute, 2017.Google Scholar
Stenson, Michael. Class, Race and Colonialism in West Malaysia: The Indian Case. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1980.Google Scholar
Stolte, Carolien. “‘The Asiatic Hour’: New Perspectives on the Asian Relations Conference, New Delhi, 1947.” In The Non-Aligned Movement and the Cold War: Delhi— Bandung—Belgrade, edited by Miskovic, Natasa, Fischer-Tine, Harald, and Boskovska, Nada. London: Routledge, 2014.Google Scholar
Syed, Husin Ali. Ethnic Relations in Malaysia: Harmony and Conflict. Petaling Jaya: Strategic Information and Research Development Centre, 2014.Google Scholar
Phee, Tan Teng. Behind Barbed Wire: Chinese New Villages during the Malayan Emergency, 1948–1960. Petaling Jaya: Strategic Information and Research Development Centre, 2020.Google Scholar
Traverso, Enzo. Left-Wing Melancholia: Marxism, History, and Memory. New York: Columbia University Press, 2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiss, Meredith L. “Legacies of the Cold War in Malaysia: Anything But Communism.” Journal of Contemporary Asia 50:4 (2020): 511–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wong Wing On, James. From Pacific War to Merdeka: Reminiscences of Abdullah C. D., Rashid Maidin, Suriani Abdullah & Abu Samah. Petaling Jaya: Strategic Information Research Development Centre, 2005.Google Scholar
Wong Tze Ken, Danny. “View from the Other Side: Early Cold War in Malaysia from the Memoirs and Writings of Former MCP Members.” In Southeast Asia and the Cold War, edited by Lau, Albert, 85–101. London: Routledge, 2012.Google Scholar
Tenth Regiment, Malayan National Liberation Army. International Institute of Social History, Amsterdam. [TRA]Google Scholar
– “Kaum Atheist dan Kaum Theist Boleh Bekerjasama di Segi Politik Mengikut Jalan Socialism.”Google Scholar
– Kebenaran, 1955–57.Google Scholar
– “Membarui Gaya2 Parti.”Google Scholar
– “Memberbaiki Pelajaran Kita.”Google Scholar
– “Menentang Baku Parti.”Google Scholar
– “Pertentangan.”Google Scholar
– Pilihan Ucapan Kawan Pimpinan: Sempena Ulang Tahun Ke-10, Ke-20, Ke-30 Dan Ke-40 Berdirinya Rejimen Ke-10. [n.d.]Google Scholar
– Tauladan, vol. 1–8, 1955– [n.d.].Google Scholar
Abdullah, C. D. Darurat dan Kemerdekaan: Memperingati 50 Tahun Darurat Di Tanah Melayu. Hong Kong: Nan Dao Publisher, 1998.Google Scholar
Abdullah, C. D. The Memoirs of Abdullah C. D. Part One: The Movement until 1948. Petaling Jaya: Strategic Information and Research Development Centre, 2005.Google Scholar
“Asian Relations: Being a Report of the Proceedings and Documentation of the First Asian Relations Conference, New Delhi, March–April, 1947.” New Delhi, 1947.Google Scholar
Omar, Muhammad Sayuti, ed. “Mengunjungi Kampung Perdamaian Rejimen Ke-10—Komunis Melayu.” MSO Melayu, 30 August 2013.Google Scholar
Hussain, Mustapha. Malay Nationalism before UMNO. Translated by Mustapha, Insun Sony, edited by K. S., Jomo Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publications, 2005.Google Scholar
Akashi, Yoji. “The Japanese Occupation of Malaya.” In Southeast Asia under Japanese Occupation, edited by W, Alfred. McCoy. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, 1980.Google Scholar
Amoroso, Donna J. Traditionalism and the Ascendancy of the Malay Ruling Class in Colonial Malaya. Petaling Jaya: Strategic Information and Research Development Centre, 2014.Google Scholar
Arditti, Roger C. Counterinsurgency Intelligence and the Emergency in Malaya. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Omar, Ariffin. Bangsa Melayu: Concepts of Democracy and Community among the Malays, 1945–1950. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Bayly, C. A., and Harper, T. N.. Forgotten Armies: The Fall of British Asia, 1941–1945. London: Allen Lane, 2004.Google Scholar
Belogurova, Anna. The Comintern and Chinese Networks in Southeast Asia, 1890–1957. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019.Google Scholar
Blackburn, Kevin, and Hack, Karl. War Memory and the Making of Modern Malaysia and Singapore. Singapore: National University of Singapore Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bradley, Francis R. “Women, Violence, and Gender Dynamics during and after the Five Patani-Siam Wars, 1785–1838.” Itinerario 45:3 (2021).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kheng, Cheah Boon, ed. The Challenge of Ethnicity: Building a Nation in Malaysia. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish, 2004.Google Scholar
Kheng, Cheah Boon, ed. From PKI to the Comintern, 1924–1941: The Apprenticeship of the Malayan Communist Party. Ithaca, N.Y.: Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University, 1992.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kheng, Cheah Boon. “Japanese Army Policy toward the Chinese and Malay-Chinese Relations in Wartime Malaya.” In Southeast Asian Minorities in the Wartime Japanese Empire, edited by Kratoska, Paul H., 97–110. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2002.Google Scholar
Kheng, Cheah Boon. Malaysia: The Making of a Nation. Singapore: ISEAS, 2002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kheng, Cheah Boon. The Masked Comrades: A Study of the Communist United Front in Malaya, 1945–48. Singapore: Times Books International, 1979.Google Scholar
Kheng, Cheah Boon. Red Star over Malaya: Resistance and Social Conflict During and after the Japanese Occupation of Malaya, 1941–1946, 4th ed. Singapore: NUS Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kheng, Cheah Boon. “The Social Impact of the Japanese Occupation of Malaya (1942–1945).” In Southeast Asia under Japanese Occupation, edited by McCoy, Alfred W.. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, 1980.Google Scholar
Dreyfuss, Robert. Devil's Game: How the United States Helped Unleash Fundamentalist Islam. New York: Holt Paperbacks, 2005.Google Scholar
Noor, Farish A.. Islam Embedded: The Historical Development of the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party PAS, 1951–2003. Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Sociological Research Institute, 2004.Google Scholar
Fields, Gary. Enclosure: Palestinian Landscapes in a Historical Mirror. Oakland: University of California Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fogg, Kevin W. Indonesia's Islamic Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020.Google Scholar
Formichi, Chiara. “Displacing Political Islam in Indonesia.” Itinerario 45:3 (2021).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Formichi, Chiara. Islam and the Making of the Nation: Kartosuwiryo and Political Islam in Twentieth-Century Indonesia. Leiden: KITLV, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fujio, Hara. “The Malayan Communist Party and the Indonesian Communist Party: Features of Co-Operation.” Journal of Chinese Overseas 6 (2010): 216–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Funston, N. J. Malay Politics in Malaysia: A Study of the United Malays National Organisation and Party Islam. Kuala Lumpur: Heinemann Educational Books, 1980.Google Scholar
Gedacht, Joshua. “Exile, Mobility, and Re-territorialisation in Aceh and Colonial Indonesia.” Itinerario 45:3 (2021).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gedacht, Joshua. “The ‘Shaykh Al-Islam of the Philippines’ and Coercive Cosmopolitanism in an Age of Global Empire.” In Challenging Cosmopolitanism: Coercion, Mobility and Displacement in Islamic Asia, edited by Gedacht, Joshua and Michael Feener, R., 172–203. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2018.Google Scholar
Gedacht, Joshua, and Malhi, Amrita, ‘‘Introduction to Coercing Mobility: Territory and Displacement in the Politics of Southeast Asia.”, Itinerario 45:3 (2021).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldberg, David Theo. The Racial State. Malden: Blackwell, 2002.Google Scholar
Hack, Karl. Defence and Decolonisation in Southeast Asia: Britain, Malaya and Singapore 1941–1967. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 2001.Google Scholar
Hack, Karl. “Everyone Lived in Fear: Malaya and the British Way of Counter-Insurgency.” Small Wars & Insurgencies 23:4–5 (2012): 671–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hack, Karl. “Malaya—Between Two Terrors: People's History and the Malayan Emergency.” In Hearts and Minds: A People's History of Counterinsurgency, edited by Gurman, Hannah, 17–49. New York: The New Press, 2013.Google Scholar
Mohd Noor, Hafidzul Hilmi. “1,500 Join ICERD Protest in KL,” New Straits Times, 4 November 2018: https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2018/11/428229/1500-join-icerd-protest-kl.Google Scholar
Harper, T. N. The End of Empire and the Making of Malaya. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Harper, T. N., and Bayly, C. A.. Forgotten Wars: Freedom and Revolution in Southeast Asia. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Hiroyuki, Yamamoto, Anthony Milner, Kawashima Midori, and Kazuhiro, Arai, eds. Bangsa and Umma: Development of People-Grouping Concepts in Islamised Southeast Asia. Kyoto: Kyoto University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Horowitz, D. L. “Ethnic Power Sharing: Three Big Problems.” Journal of Democracy 25:2 (2014): 5–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kenneison, Rebecca. The Special Operations Executive in Malaya: World War II and the Path to Independence. London: Bloomsbury, 2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keo, Bernard Z. “A Small Distant War? Historiographical Reflections on the Malayan Emergency.” History Compass 17:3 (2019): 1–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kloos, David. “Dis/connection: Violence, Religion, and Geographic Imaginings in Aceh and Colonial Indonesia, 1890s–1920s.” Itinerario 45:3 (2021).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kratoska, Paul H. The Japanese Occupation of Malaya and Singapore, 1941–45. Singapore: NUS Press, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salleh, Lamry Mohamed. “A History of the Tenth Regiment's Struggles.” Inter-Asia Cultural Studies 16:1 (2015): 42–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lau, Albert. “Introduction: Southeast Asia and the Cold War.” In Southeast Asia and the Cold War, edited by Lau, Albert, 1–12. London: Routledge, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lijphart, Arend. Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977.Google Scholar
Mauzy, Diane K., and Milne, R. S.. Malaysian Politics under Mahathir. London: Routledge, 1999.Google Scholar
Milner, Anthony. The Malays. Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.Google Scholar
Milner, Anthony, and Ting, Helen. “Race and Its Competing Paradigms.” In Transforming Malaysia: Dominant and Competing Paradigms, edited by Milner, Anthony Crothers, Embong, Abdul Rahman, and Tham, Siew Yean. Bangi: Institut Kajian Malaysia dan Antarabangsa, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ooi, Keat Gin. “Borne of the Cold War: Malaya/Malaysia from a Historical Perspective.” Suvannabhumi 8:2 (2016): 79–111.Google Scholar
Poulgrain, Greg. The Genesis of Konfrontasi: Malaysia, Brunei and Indonesia, 1945–1965. Petaling Jaya: Strategic Information & Research Development Centre, 1952.Google Scholar
Prashad, Vijay. The Darker Nations: A People's History of the Third World. New York: New Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Razak, Radzi. “DAP a Party of Modern Communists? Don't Believe Social Media Attacks, Says Kit Siang.” Malay Mail, 26 October 2019: https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2019/10/26/dap-a-party-of-modern-communists-dont-believe-social-media-attacks-says-kit/1804050.Google Scholar
Saravanamuttu, Johan. Power Sharing in a Divided Nation: Mediated Communalism and New Politics in Six Decades of Malaysia's Elections. Singapore: ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute, 2017.Google Scholar
Stenson, Michael. Class, Race and Colonialism in West Malaysia: The Indian Case. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1980.Google Scholar
Stolte, Carolien. “‘The Asiatic Hour’: New Perspectives on the Asian Relations Conference, New Delhi, 1947.” In The Non-Aligned Movement and the Cold War: Delhi— Bandung—Belgrade, edited by Miskovic, Natasa, Fischer-Tine, Harald, and Boskovska, Nada. London: Routledge, 2014.Google Scholar
Syed, Husin Ali. Ethnic Relations in Malaysia: Harmony and Conflict. Petaling Jaya: Strategic Information and Research Development Centre, 2014.Google Scholar
Phee, Tan Teng. Behind Barbed Wire: Chinese New Villages during the Malayan Emergency, 1948–1960. Petaling Jaya: Strategic Information and Research Development Centre, 2020.Google Scholar
Traverso, Enzo. Left-Wing Melancholia: Marxism, History, and Memory. New York: Columbia University Press, 2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiss, Meredith L. “Legacies of the Cold War in Malaysia: Anything But Communism.” Journal of Contemporary Asia 50:4 (2020): 511–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wong Wing On, James. From Pacific War to Merdeka: Reminiscences of Abdullah C. D., Rashid Maidin, Suriani Abdullah & Abu Samah. Petaling Jaya: Strategic Information Research Development Centre, 2005.Google Scholar
Wong Tze Ken, Danny. “View from the Other Side: Early Cold War in Malaysia from the Memoirs and Writings of Former MCP Members.” In Southeast Asia and the Cold War, edited by Lau, Albert, 85–101. London: Routledge, 2012.Google Scholar