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‘Quelques Satisfactions d'Amour-propre’: African Elite Integration, the Loi-cadre, and Involuntary Decolonisation of French Tropical Africa

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 June 2011

Alexander Keese
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Extract

On 21 March 1956, the French Overseas Minister, Gaston Defferre, addressed the Assemblée Rationale, presenting a project with especially far-reaching implications. A loi-cadre was planned in order to enable a greater degree of participation by the indigenous populations in the sub-Saharan African overseas territories. The responsibility of the local Assemblées Territoriales was to be increased in various fields. Conseils de Gouuemement were proposed, with the objective to allow Black African politicians to have a role in the territorial executive. Defferre exhorted the deputies to prevent by their vote a development of the tropical African territories in the style of the Maghreb or Indochina. His speech seemed to impress the members of the chamber. At the occasion of two ballots, on 23 March and on 23 June 1956, his bill passed with a comfortable majority.

Type
Articles
Information
Itinerario , Volume 27 , Issue 1 , March 2003 , pp. 33 - 58
Copyright
Copyright © Research Institute for History, Leiden University 2003

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References

Notes

1 The details of the composition of the law are presented in Gonidec, P.F., ‘L'Evolution des Territoires d'Outre-Mer depuis 1946’, Revue Juridique et Politique de l'Union Française 11/3 (July-September 1957) 429–477Google Scholar , 11/4 (October-December 1957) 701-728; the most detailed analysis is still given in the classical study of Benoist, Joseph-Roger de, L'Afrique occidentale Française de 1944 á 1960 (Dakar 1982) 295–298Google Scholar.

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5 Archives Municipales de Marseille, Fonds Defferre, 100 II 136, Wibaux, [‘Note sur le degré de comparabilité de l'évolution des territoires britanniques et françaises’], without date [1956], without number, page 1; on the estimations of the consequences of British decolonisation compare Centre des Archives d'Outre-Mer (C.A.O.M.), Aix-en-Provence, Fonds Ministériel, FM l'AffPol/491, Sanner, Pierre, ‘Brèves notes sur la reforme des institutions politiques de 1'A.O.F.’, 1Google Scholar in: Sanner, Pierre, ‘Notes sur la reforme des institutions de l'Afrique Occidentale Française’, 24 November 1955Google Scholar (unpublished). Compare also Brunschwig, Henri, ‘The Decolonization of French Black Africa’ in: Gifford and Louis, The Transfer of Power in Africa’, 211-224, 215Google Scholar . On British-French contact facing the UN Mandate politics in Togo see Michel, Marc, The Independence of TogoGoogle Scholar in : Gifford, and Louis, , Decolonization and African Independence, 295–319, 304Google Scholar.

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15 Deschamps, Hubert, Les méthodes et les doctrines coloniales de la France, du XVle siècle à nos jours (Paris 1953) 199, 205Google Scholar ; Lavergne, Bernard, Afrique du Nord, Afrique Noire: solutions nouoelles quis'lmposent (Paris 1956) 77–78Google Scholar ; Boisdon, Daniel, ‘L'Union française, pour devenir une solide communaute’ de destin, doit étre féderale, Marchés Colonlaux du Monde 542 (1956), 831–837Google Scholar , 835 ; Thiam, Doudou, La portee de la citoyenneté française dans les T.O.M. (Paris 1953) 163Google Scholar ; ‘Les Assemblées Locales dans l'Outre-Mer français. Une voie fécondevers l'Association Outre-Mer- Métropole’, L'Economie, Supplement au n° 447, 3 June 1954, 8Google Scholar.

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17 Mus, Paul, Le destin de l'Union française (Paris 1954) 265, 294Google Scholar.

18 Le Monde, 2 September 1955, 1, 3; remarks about the superiority of French culture can be found in Le Monde, 22 September 1955, 14Google Scholar.

19 Marchés, Coloniaux, 7 January 1956, 7Google Scholar.

20 Siriex, Paul-Henri, Une Mouvelle Afrique, AOF 1957 (Paris 1957) 114Google Scholar.

21 Morgenthau, , Political Parties, 29Google Scholar ; Mortimer, , France and the Africans, 143Google Scholar ; Benoist, De, L'Afrique occidental française, 106–107Google Scholar ; Bouche, Oenise, ‘Passage de l'autorite’ de l'admini-strateur français au militant africain’ in: Ageron and Michel, L'Afrique noire française, 171–179, 176Google Scholar.

22 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/2230/4, Kone, , ‘Mission au Soudan/Rapport politique’ (without number), without date (arrival at 23/1/1947), 2Google Scholar.

23 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/2174/4, Béchard to Letourneau (n° 279/INT/AP.2), 30 March 1950.

24 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/2263/1, ‘Note Origines et évolution du R.DA’ (without signature, without number), without date (obviously 1951), 6.

25 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/3418, Béchard to Letourneau (n° 272/Cab/Conf.), 13 January 1950, 1; comments at C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/3418, d'Arboussier to Bonzou, 15 October 1949, 3.

26 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/2154/9, Béchard to Letoumeau (n° 702/Cab/Conf.), 16 January 1950, 2; on the disparition of Boda compare C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/2154/9, ‘[Mote (handwritten, without signature)] Disparition de Biaka Boda’ (without number), without date, 2.

27 C.A.p.M., FMlAffPol/2115/l, Cédile to Coste-Floret(n°46/APA), 15 March 1948; C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/2115/1, Maury to Sécretariat General du Togo (n° 11/S), 4 March 1948, 1.

28 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/253, Durand-Réville to Jacquinot, 28 August 1951, 2.

29 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/2180/8, Bénilan (Section de Documentation Militaire de l'Onion Française, Centre d'Etudes Asiatiques et Afh'caines), ‘Evolution du R.DA de 1946 á 1951’, March 1951, 26.

30 Archives Nationales Sénégalaises (ANS) Dakar, Gouvemement General de l'Afrique Occiden-tale Française, Dakar (GGAOF), 2 G 54/143, Bulletin Mensuel de Politique Générale -Août 1954, 4.

31 ANS GGAOF 2 G 54/148, Messmer, , ‘Territoire de la Côte d'lvoire, Affaires Politique — 4eme Trimestre 1954’, 1Google Scholar ; on the changing attitude of the Director of the Political Department of the Overseas Ministry, Delteil, see Note of Delteil to Ratinaud (n° 2209/PD/CJ), 1 April 1953.

32 Gouvemement Général de l'Afrique Equatoriale Française (GGAEF, fonds rapatrie au C.A.O.M., Aix-en-Provence), 5/D/250, Section de Coordination d'A.E.F., ‘Note de Renseigne-ment’ [without date; without number; without signature — commenting on Renseignements Militaires of 14 June 1952); GGAEF 5/D/250, Lavanga to Launois (n° 612/SCAE.F.), 20 December 1951; GGAEF 5/D/250, Chambon to Jacquinot (n° 1304/AP1), 4 August 1953.

33 ANS GGAOF 2 G 53/149, ‘Synthèse de l'Acth/ite’ Syndicate pour le Premier Trimestre 1953’, 1; ANS GGAOF 2 G 53/149, ‘Synthèse des Faits Politiques pour le Troisieme Trimestre 1953’, 1.

34 ANS GGAOF 2 G 55/133, Bulletin Mensuel de Politique Générale — April 1955, 3Google Scholar.

35 ANS GGAOF 2 G 53/149, ‘Synthése de l'Activité Syndicate pour le Premier Trimestre 1953’, 8; ANS GGAOF 2 G 54/143, Bulletin Mensuel de Politique Générale — Juillet 1954, 1Google Scholar ; ANS GGAOF 2 G 54/143, Bulletin Mensuel de Politique Gina — Octobre 1954, 1Google Scholar.

36 ANS GGAOF 2 G 55/133, Bulletin Mensuel de Politique Générale — Janvier 1955, 2Google Scholar.

37 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/2115/1, ‘Copie d'une note du Haut-Commissaire de la Republique [= Cornut-Gentille] en A.O.F. relatant une conversation du chef du Secretariat inter-territoires de 1'Afrique Occidentale Britannique avec un de ses collaborateurs sur la situation en Gold Coast’ (n° 488/BP/FA), [27 May 1953] — ‘Mote sur la Situation en Gold Coast’, 1, 2; GGAEF 5/D/228, Lefevre to Chauvet (n° 223), ‘Note N'Krumah et le Communisme’, 30 September 1953, 11.

38 Jourdain, , ‘Synthése Politique Trimestrielle [Sénégal] — 3me TrimestreGoogle Scholar 1954’ (n° 627/APA. 1), without date, 2.

39 CA0.M., FM lAffPo1/2231/2, Jourdain, , ‘Synthése Politique Trimestrielle [Sénégal] — 4e Trimestre 1954’Google Scholar (without number), without date, 2-3; C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/2231/2, illisible, ‘Synthése Politique [Sénégal] — ler Trimestre 1955’ (n° 280), 29 March 1955, 3.

40 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/2231/l, Chimier, , ‘Revue des Evénements du 10 Juin au 10 Septembre 1954 [au Dahomey]’Google Scholar (without number), without date, 2.

41 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/3418, Pruvost, , ‘Contact avec les Populations en Guinée’Google Scholar (without number), 15 March 1955,14; C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/2231/2, Direction des Affaires Politiques, Zéme Bureau, ‘Note a propos des menaces pesant sur 1'A.O.F.’ (without number), without date [1955], 2.

42 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/3418, Pruvost, , ‘Note sur les incidents de 1954-1955 en Guinée’ (without number), 12 March 1955, 3Google Scholar.

43 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/2231/2, Jourdain, , ‘Synthése Politique Trimestrieile [Sénégal] — 4e Trimestre 1954’Google Scholar (without number), without date, 19.

44 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/2230/4, Bonfils, , ‘Revue des Evénements du ler Octobre 1952-10 Mars 1953’Google Scholar (without number), 10 March 1953, 28.

45 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/2231/2, Geay, , ‘Revue Trimestrielle [Soudan]: Quatrième Trimestre 1954 (Periode du 10 Septembre 1954 au 10 Decembre 1954)’Google Scholar (n° 11/APAS.), 8 January 1955, 3; C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/2230/4, Colombani, , ‘Synthèse Politique [Sénégal] — ler Trimestre 1955’Google Scholar (n° 280), 29 March 1955, 14.

46 Triaud, Jean-Louis, ‘Le crépuscule des Affaires musulmanes en AOF, 1950-1956’Google Scholar in : Robinson, D. and Triaud, J. L. eds, Le temps des marabouts: Itinéraires et stratégies isla-miques en Afrique occidentale française v. 1880-1960 (Paris 1997) 493-519, 501–504Google Scholar.

47 But in difference to the decades before Libération it had been regarded, after 1944, as inevitable to address the educated natives as new political class, for the older concepts of a preservation of chiefly authority in the 1930s: compare Conklin, Alice, A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa, 1895-1930 (Stanford 1997) 251Google Scholar.

48 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/2230/4, Geay, to Cornut-Gentille, , ‘Revue Trimestrielle [Soudan]: Troi-sième Trimestre 1953’Google Scholar (n° 364/APAS.), 16 September 1953, 10.

49 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/2231/1, Etcheber, , ‘Territoire de la Haute-Volta, Revue Trimestrielle, Decembre 1953 — Janvier — Fevrier 1954’Google Scholar, without date, 2; compare also C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/2230/4, Toby, , ‘Revue des Evenements du Quatrième Trimestre [Niger]’, 13 December 1953, 3Google Scholar.

50 ANS GGAOF 2 G 55/133, Bulletin Mensuel de Politique Générale — Mars 1955, 3Google Scholar.

51 Fonds Deschamps (C.A.O.M.), 36PA/2/18, Sanquer, , ‘Monographie du Canton Massango (1955)’, 13 March 1956, 22Google Scholar.

52 Fonds Deschamps, 36PA/2/18, M'Bigou, Sous-préfecture, ‘Rapport Politique — Année 1959’, 31 January 1960, 23Google Scholar.

53 Fonds Fraisse (C.A.O.M.), 8APOW8, Fraisse, , ‘Notes Africaines — Fin d'une Generation’, 23 March 1952, 2Google Scholar.

54 Brégeon, Jean-Joel, Un rêve d'Afrique: Administratews en Oubangui-Chari, la Cendrillon de l'Empire (Paris 1998) 242Google Scholar.

55 Nicolas Bancel argues that French colonial officials rather tried the integration of African elite members by an enlargement of the public sector as a result of political reform, thus allowing for the employment of educated Africans on administration posts. Bancel draws on a correspondent circulate of Overseas Minister Teitgen, see Bancel, , Entre acculturation et resolution, 430–437Google Scholar . Nevertheless, it was the leading role in political participation which French officials saw as the major objective of African évolués, not the administration post.

56 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/1011, Note of Lefevre to Delteil (without number), 15 November 1953, 1, 8-9.

57 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/1011, Pflimlin to Conseil des Ministres, ‘Communication du Ministre de la France d'Outre-Mer sur la Situation au Togo’ (without number), 23 Jury 1952, 7; C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/1011, Note of Delteil to Jacquinot (n° 1037), 28 November 1953, 1.

58 C.A.O.M., GGAOF 2G 54/151, Mathias, ‘Renseignement: Situation au Dahomey-Togo (Jan-vier 1954)’ (n° 38/2/POL), 5 February 1954, 4.

59 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/1012, Note of Pignon to Teitgen (n° 337/LP/JR), 26 March 1955, 2; C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/1010, Direction des Affaires Politiques, ‘Réformes apportees par le Projet de loi déposé par le Gouvernement dans les Institutions du Togo’, 28 June 1954 (without number, without signature), 1; on the details of the loi Togolaise see also Luchaire, François, ‘Le Togo Français: De la Tutelle a l'Autonomie’, Revue Juridique et Politique de rUnion Française 11/1 (January-Mars 1957) 1–46Google Scholar and 11/3 (July-September 1957) 501-87.

60 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/1012, ‘Réunion du 27 Juillet 1954 chez M. de Villelongue’ (without number and date, without signature), 3.

61 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/2231/2, Colombani, , ‘Synthèse Politique [Sénégal] — 4e Trimestre 1955’Google Scholar (without number), without date, 9; C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/2231/1, Bissini, , acting as substitute for Bonfils, ‘Revue des Evénements du 10 Septembre au 10 Décembre 1954 [au Dahomey]’Google Scholar (without number), without date, 1.

62 C.A.O.M., FM 1AffPol/253, Circulary of Letoumeau to Hauts-Commissaires and Gouvemeurs (n° 557), 30 May 1950, 4–5Google Scholar.

63 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/253, ‘Problèmes relatifs aux Assemblées locales’ (without number, without signature), August 1952, 6-7.

64 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/253, Delteil to Jacquinot (n° 1474/EN/CL), 3 March 1953.

65 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/253, Note of Delteil to Jacquinot (n° 1396/J/JZ), 27 February 1953, 1-2.

66 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/253, Note of Delteil to Department Heads and Chefs de Service (without number, without date/forwarded on approval the 30 March 1954), 1.

67 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/491, ‘Avant-projet de loi sur les institutions de l'Afrique Occidental Françhise’ (without number, without date, probably November 1954), 16-18.

68 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/491, ‘Avant Projet de Loi’ (without number), 15 October 1954, 7; compare C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/253, (catalogue of reform elements — without title, first page missing, without number, date or signature, but probably from 1955), attached to the Note of Wibaux to Villelongue (n° 205), 8 January 1955, 3. Wibaux, in that time member of the cabinet of Général Governor Cornut-Gentille, reacted to an inquiry of the territorial deputies of the Ivory Coast.

69 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/492 (probably internal document of the Direction des Affaires Politiques), ‘Rapport Conseils de Gouvemement’ to Spenale and Bourgeau, 2.

70 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/491, ‘Note relative a 1'avant projet de loi sur les institutions de 1'A.O.F.’ (without number), 27 November 1954, 1.

71 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/491, ‘Projet de Loi relatif aux attributions et regies de fonctionnement des Assemblées Territoriales, au statut financier des Territoires et a la gestion des interets inter territoriaux dan s les Groupes de 1'A.O.F. et de l'A.E.F.’ (Communique of the PrSsidence du Conseil de Ministres/Ministre de la France d'Outre-Mer, without signature), 17 May 1954, 4-5.

72 Mus, Destin, 338.

73 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/493, Pignon, , ‘Note sur l'institution de conseils de gouvemement’ (without number), without date (probably at beginning of 1956), 1Google Scholar.

74 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/491, Pignon to Villelongue (n° 4188), 10 December 1954, 1.

75 About the influence of the former Indochinese administrators’ experiences on their political outlook, compare Cohen, William, Rulers of Empire: The French Colonial Service in Africa (Stanford 1971) 184Google Scholar.

76 C.A.O.M. FM lAffPo1/2231/2, Biros, , ‘Revue des Evénements du 10 Septembre 1955 au 10 Janvier 1956 [au Dahomey]’Google Scholar (without number), 7 June 1956, 4; C.A.O.M., FM lAffPO1/491 , Biros to Sanner (n° 139/CAB), 29 Oct. 1955 (in Sanner to Teitgen, 9 November 1955), 4-5.

77 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/491, Messmer, , ‘Note en réponse à la Note en forme de rapport de Monsieur l'inspecteur Sanner’Google Scholar (without number), 15 October 1955, 2-3.

78 Fonds Defferre, 100 II 134, Houphouet-Boigny, , ‘Note au sujet du projet de ioi cadre propose par Monsieur le Ministre de la France d'Outre-Mer’Google Scholar (without number), 27 February 1956, 4.

79 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/491, Sanner, , ‘Brèves notes sur la reforme des institutions politiques de 1'A.O.F.’, 8Google Scholar , in Sanner, to Teitgen, , ‘Notes sur la reforme des institutions de l'Afrique Occidentale Française’ (without number), 24 October 1955Google Scholar.

80 Bancel argues, based on an interview campaign among former French colonial personnel, that the majority of those officials supported far-reaching autonomy for Black African populations already in the 1950s. However, Bancel himself acknowledges the problem that many former officials obviously tried to defend their behaviour during this period. See Bancel, , Entre acculturation et révolution, 460Google Scholar.

81 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/491, Pechouxto Pignon (without number), 26 October 1954; C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/491, Note of the Inspection Générale du Travail et des Lois Sociales de France d'Outremer/Service Général du Travail et la Main-d'D'Ouvre to Pignon (without number), 5 November 1954; C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/493, Rossin to Luchaire (n° 2281/AG.), 11 June 1955,1; C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/493, Robert to Luchaire (n° 385-DSS/SC/4), without date, 2.

82 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/493, Moussa to Spénale (n° 4658/AE/l), 15 June 1955, 1-2.

83 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/491, Chauvet to Buron (n° 1485), 13 January 1955, 2.

84 CA0.M., FM lAffPO1/491, Cornut-Gentille to Teitgen, 7 May 1955 (n° 6234), 8.

85 C.A.O.M., FM 1AffPOl/490, Interview of Agence France Presse with Chauvet (without number), without date, probably May 1956, 3; Marchés Coloniawc, 28 April 1956, 1246.

86 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/493, Levallois to Chauvet (n° 1125/APAG), 29 SepL 1953, 1-2; C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/493, Grimald to Chauvet (without number), 26 September 1953, 2.

87 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/493, Digo to Chauvet (without number), 26 September 1953, 2.

88 C.A.O.M., Colpmbani to Chauvet (n° 393/AG.AP.CF), 27 October 1953, 3.

89 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/1011, Note of Delteil to Pflimlin, September 1952, 4.

90 Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine and Ageron, Charles-Robert, Histoire de la France Coloniale 3: Le diclin (Paris 1991) 393Google Scholar.

91 Fonds Defferre, 100 II 122, Guille to Commin, 24 February 1956.

92 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/492, Defferre to Cusin (without number), blueprint without date (probably second half of 1956), 5.

93 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/490, Note of Pignon to Spenale (n° 7383/YLB/CL), 17 September 1956, 2.

94 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/247, Note of Bonnal to Pignon (n° 5540), 19 December 1956, 3-4.

95 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/490, Note of Pignon to Moussa (n° 8707/YLB/CL), 26 October 1956, 1; C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/247, Valdant as substitute for Moussa to Defferre (n° 9598/AEP/1), 21 December 1956, 2; C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/247, Note of Moussa to Defferre (without number), 15 February 1957, 2.

96 Compare Fonds Chauvet (C.A.O.M.), Chauvet, , ‘Note sur les barrages du Kouilou et du Konkoure’ (without number), without date (1956), 3–4Google Scholar.

97 C.A.O.M., FM 1AffPol/491, “Note relative à l'avant projet de Ioi sur les institutions de lAO.F.’, 27 November 1954, 1; C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/492, ‘Observations sur les articles de l'avant-projet redige’ par M. Apithy’ (without number), without date, 1.

98 Benoist, De, L'Afrique occidentale française, 299–301Google Scholar , 317-319, describes the debates, but he focuses on the consensus in Parliament without pointing at the advantages of the Black African experts in the discussion. On the absence of most deputies at the time of the debate see Siriex, , Cine Nouvelle Afrique, 106Google Scholar . The character of the debates is illustrated in the most impressive way by passages from the session of 30 January 1957, when the concrete decrees were voted. The deputies Dupuy and Vigier utilised the situation to perform in a private faceoff, see , J.O.R.F., Débats Parlémentaires—Assemblée Nationale, 30 January 1957, 363–364Google Scholar . The disinterest of the metropolitan members of the chamber becomes manifest in the statement of Robert Buron, complaining about th e fact that only indigenous Africans participated in the discussion, see , J.O.R.F., Débats Parlimeńtaires—Assemblie Nationale, 31 January 1957, 396Google Scholar . On the struggles within the Commission, for the first time dominated by a coalition of Black African and Communist politicians, see the comment of Raingeard in , J.O.R.F., Dibats Parlimentaires — Assemblée Nationale, 30 January 1957, 374Google Scholar.

99 Defferre, Fonds, [Defferre?], ‘Inconstitutionnalité des dispositions du Décret sur la formation et le fonctionnement des Conseils de Gouvernement dans la rédaction de la Commission des T.O.M.’ (without number), without date [January 1957], 2Google Scholar.

100 Suret-Canale, Jean, La République de Guinée (Paris 1970), 193Google Scholar ; Jean Suret-Canale, ‘From Colonization to Independence in French Tropical Africa: The Economic Background’ in: Gifford, and Louis, , The Transfer of Power in Africa, 445–481Google Scholar , 471 ; Gallisot, René, ‘Les nouveaux Etats: essai de typologie’ in: Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine ed., Décolonisations et Nouvelles Dépendances: Modèles et contre-modèles idiologiques et culturels dans le Tiers-Monde (Villeneuve-d'Ascq 1984), 51–63Google Scholar , 53 ; Morgenthau, , Political Parties, 72, 301Google Scholar ; Vaillant, Janet G., Black, French, and African: A Life of Leopold Sédar Senghor (Cambridge/Mass-London 1990) 296CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

101 For the first time in J.O.R.F., Débats Parlémentaires, 21 March 1956, 1070Google Scholar.

102 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/492, Delteil to Jacquinot (n° 8812/PD/CJ), 2 December 1953, 8, 11; CA0.M., FM lAffPo1/491, [Direction des Affaires Politiques], ‘Note sur la repartition des ressources entre Budget GSne'ral et Budget des Territoires groupes’ (without number), 13 July 1954, 2.

103 Compare Benoist, Joseph-Roger de, La balkanisation de l'Afrique occidentale française (Dakar 1979) 120–126Google Scholar.

104 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/491, Cauet, , ‘Etude d'une Reorganisation Administrative Eventuelle de 1'A.O.F.’ (without number), 1 August 1954, 49, 125–126Google Scholar.

105 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/492, Note of Direction de Contrôle, Budget et Contentiewc/Section des Finances Publiques d'Outre-Mer, ‘Fédéralisme Financier en AOF (n° 659/DQ, 4 May 1954,2; C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/491, Note of Marelle to Pignon (without number), 27 October 1954.

106 C.A.O.M., FM 1AffPol/491, Sanner, ‘Note succincte sur la réforme de la structure de l'Afrique Occidentale Française’ (without number), 20 July 1955, 4.

107 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/491, Sanner, , ‘Breves notes sur la reforme des institutions politiques de 1'A.O.F.’, 1 inGoogle Scholar : Sanner, , ‘Notes sur la reforme des institutions de l'Afrique Occidentale Françhise’ (without number), 24 October 1955Google Scholar.

108 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/492, Chauvet to Defferre (n° 643/SPP), 6 March 1956, 2; C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/491, Chauvet to Defferre and Pignon (n° 6499), 15 June 1956, 2, 8, 38; C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/491, Cornut-Gentille to Sanner (n° 911/CAB/DIR/TECH), 19 July 1954, 2; C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/491, Cornut-Gentille to Teitgen (n° 6234), 7 May 1955, 8-9. On Cornut-Gentille, see also Mortimer, , France and the Africans, 238Google Scholar ; Benoist, De, L'Afrique occidentale Française, 210Google Scholar (antedates erroneously document of Cornut-Gentille, without explanation).

109 C.A.O.M, FM lAffPo1/492, Ehrhard, , ‘Relations entre le Budget Général et les Budgets Territoriaux’ (without number), without date (probably 1955), 29Google Scholar.

110 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/492, without signature, ‘Rapport Conseils de Gouvemement to Spénale and Bourgeau’ (without number), without date (probably 1955), 1.

111 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/491, Defferre to Cornut-Gentille (n° 4438), without date (after 21 March 1956).

112 Hymans, Jacques Louis, Léopold Sédar Senghor: An Intellectual Biography (Edinburgh 1971) 176Google Scholar ; Benoist, De, La balkanisation, 112Google Scholar.

113 Fonds Defferre, 100 II 134, Houphouet-Boigny to Defferre (without date), 2 7 February 1956.

114 C.A.O.M., FM 1AffPOl/491, Pignon, , ‘Note (2) sur les propositions de M. Houphouet concer-nant l'organisation des groupes de territoire et les pouvoirs des Assemblées’Google Scholar (without number), without date; C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/491, Pignon to Defferre (n° 998), 4 October 1956.

115 Fonds Defferre, 100 II 139, (without signature), ‘Analyse Critique des Travaux de la Commission’ (without number), without date.

116 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/491, [Direction des Affaires Politiques], ‘Note a.s. de la modification des attributions des Grands Conseils et des Assemblées des Territoires groupe’s’ (without number), 13 July 1954, 1; compare C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/493, [Direction des Affaires Politiques], ‘Note sur la reorganisation des services du gouvernement Général de 1'A.O.F. telle qu'elle resultera de l'Avis n° 4 du Grand Conseil’ (without number), 16 September 1957, 1-2.

117 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/493, Messmer to Colin (n° 1581/DIR/CAB), 28 May 1958,3; compare also Larrue, Jacques and Payen, Jean-Marie, Jean Ramadier: Gouuemeurde la décolonisation (Paris 2000) 90Google Scholar.

118 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPO1/2230/3, ‘Conférence des Représentants dans les Etats Africains et Malgache (31 Janvier — 7 février 1961), [Points I et II -] Réunion des Hauts-Représentants et Envoyés exceptionnels — 31 Janvier de 17h45 á 18H30’, 1, 4, 5.

119 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/2111/7, Beauvergerto Pineau (n°634/AL), 16 May 1957, 3; C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/2111/7, Bousquet to Pineau (630/AL), 2 April 1957.

120 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/2151/2, ‘Synthèse Politique concemant les Territoires d'Outre-Mer et les Territoires sous tutelle pendant le mois de Avril 1957’, 4; on the tactical component within the appointment of settler candidates by indigenous parties see also Bernault-Boswell, Florence, ‘Le role des milieux coloniaux dans la decolonisation du Gabon et du Congo-Brazzaville (1945-1964)’ in: Ageron, and Michel, , L'Afrique noire française, 285–293Google Scholar , 291.

121 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPO1/2151/2, Direction des Affaires Politiques, ‘Synthèse Politique concer-nant les Territoires d'Outre-Mer et les Territoires sous tutelle pendant le mois de Fevrier 1957’ (without number), without date, 4; C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/2151/2, Direction des Affaires Politiques, ‘Synthèse Politique concemant les Territoires d'Outre-Mer et les Territoires sous tutelle pendant le mois de Mai 1957’ (without number), without date, 3.

122 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPo1/2257/3, Cusin to Defferre (without number), without date (incoming 5 July 1957 as n° 6684), 4.

123 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPO1/2151/3, Direction des Affaires Politiques, ‘Synthèse Politique concer-nant les Territoires d'Outre-Mer, le Cameroun et le Togo pendant le mois de Janvier 1958’ (without number), without date, 1.

124 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPO1/493, Note of Plantey to Pignon (without number), 5 August 1958.

125 Characterising this utilisation is C.A.O.M., FM lAffPO1/3418, Fodéba, Kefta, ‘La Vérité sur les Eve'nements en Guineé (without number), without date (1958), 10Google Scholar.

126 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPO1/3418, Ramadier, , ‘Observations Complementaires du Chef de Terri-toire’ (without number), without date (1958)Google Scholar ; Larrue, and Payen, , Jean Ramadier, 88Google Scholar.

127 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPO1/2233/2. Rollet to Cornut-Gentille and Messmer (n° 248/CAB/CF/2), ‘Synthèse Politique, Territoire du Niger, Avril — Mai — Juin 1958’, 30 June 1958, 14, 18.

128 For a summary of the events by the governor, see C.A.O.M., FM lAffPO1/2181/5, Lami to Cornut-Gentille, , ‘Rapport Politique, Période du 25.11 au 25.12.1958’ (n° 183/CP), 29 December 1958, 3Google Scholar.

129 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPO1/493, Lami to Jaquet (n° 961/DIR.CAB), 16 August 1957, 2-3.

130 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPO1/493, Lami to Boubacar Seye (n° 396/DIR/CAB), 5 December 1957, 3.

131 C.A.O.M., FMlAffPOl/2181/4, Telegram of Berthet to Comut-Gentille (n° 73-75), 11 August 1958.

132 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPO1/2181/3, Biros to Cusin (n° 48/CAB), 31 January 1958, 2; C.A.O.M., FM lAffPO1/2181/3, Biros to Jaquet and Cusin (n° 26/CAB), 14 February 1958.

133 C.A.O.M., FM AffPOl/2232/4, Mouragues, , ‘Bulletin Politique pour le Mois d'Octobre 1957’ (n° 1258/AG/APA), 26 November 1957, 4Google Scholar.

134 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPO1/2241/1, Digo, ‘Rapport sur le Fonctionnement du Conseil de Gouvernement’ (without number), 25 June 1957, 1 (on Gabon); C.A.O.M., FM lAffPO1/2241/1, Soupault, , ‘Notice Politique [sur le Moyen-Congol — Juillet 1957’Google Scholar (without number), without date, 2. Concerning the Chad, the complete absence of reports about the situation within the Conseil de Gouvemement is already highly suggestive! Compare C.A.O.M., FM lAffPol/2241/1, Troadec, , ‘Rapport Politique [du Tchad] du Mois de Juillet 1957’ (without number), 13 September 1957, 8Google Scholar.

135 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPO1/2241/1, Sanmarco, , ‘Note d'lnformations Politiques [sur l'Oubangui-Chari] — Avril — Mai 1957’ (without number), 24 June 1957, 2Google Scholar.

136 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPoI/493, ‘Note concernant le Tétégramme n° 55/ sécret du 1.8.1958 du Gouverneur de Mattes’ (without number), without date, 1-2.

137 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPO1/2181/5, Cabinet du Ministre de la France d'Outre-Mer/Bureau d'Etu-des (n° 1016/BE), ‘Bulletin de Renseignements (9 May 1958)’, 22 May 1958, 2-3.

138 C.A.O.M., FM lAfiPol/2266/1, without signature, ‘La présente note a pour objet de presenter quelques reflexions sur le document “Evolution des T.O.M.”’ (without number), January 1958, 5.

139 C.A.O.M., FM lAffPO1/492, without signature (Direction des Affaires Politiques), ‘Organisation Politique et Administrative de la Brousse’ (without number), August 1955, 8; C.A.O.M., FM lAffPO1/492, Pre to Defferre (n° 11/CF/CAWS), 17 January 1956, 1-2.

140 Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine, ‘Gestion urbaine et décolonisation en Afrique noire françhise: de la politique municipale à l'Smeute’ in:Google ScholarAgeron, and Michel, , L'Afrique noire française, 71–81, 79Google Scholar.

141 On the fact that the new maires were disinterested in the évolution of their cities, utilising them only as stepping-stone to territorial power, see about Boganda C.A.O.M., FM lAffPOl/2241/1, Sanmarco, , ‘Note d'lnformations Politiques [sur 1'Oubangui-Chari] — Avril — Mai 1957’ (without number), 24 June 1957, 2Google Scholar.