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The Long Road to Livorno: The Overland Messenger Services of the Dutch East India Company in the Seventeenth Century

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 April 2010

René J. Barendse
René J. Barendse
Affiliation:
Kern Institute, Leiden
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Extract

The overland communications between Asia and Europe were of crucial importance to the economic and military survival of the East India companies. This applies equally to the English, French and Dutch East India companies - and even to the Portuguese empire.

At some of the most crucial moments of its history, the very survival of the Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or VOC) depended on the thin thread connecting it overland to Europe. One of these crises occurred in the mid-seventeenth century when during the first Anglo-Dutch war, English fleets challenged Dutch naval supremacy in the Indian Ocean. Reflecting on the defeat of the British fleets and the near eradication of the English East India Company or EIC's naval presence there in 1654, the Dutch director of Surat commented: ‘We would never have gained such an easy victory if the English had reacted more promptly or had we not received warnings so promptly [tijdig].’ Similarly, the catastrophic defeat suffered at a later date by the French admiral De la Haye is normally attributed to De la Haye's hesitations. Yet is is doubtful whether the VOC would have been able ot assemble a fleet quickly enough to destroy De la Haye's fleet had the VOC not received messages overland.

Type
Articles
Information
Itinerario , Volume 12 , Issue 2 , July 1988 , pp. 25 - 43
Copyright
Copyright © Research Institute for History, Leiden University 1988

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References

Notes

1 Leupe, P.A., ‘Brievenvervoer over land naar Indië door de Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie in de 17e eeuw’, Bijdragen voor Vaderlandsche Geschiedmis en Oudheidkunde Nieuwe reeks 6 (1870) 54–67;Google ScholarFurber, Holden, ‘The Overland Route to India in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century’, Journal of Indian History 29 (1951)Google Scholar; Carruthers, S., British Routes to India (London 1924)Google Scholar; Viterbo, Francisco Marques da Souza, Viagens da India a Portugalpor Terra e vice-versa rassenha historica e documental (Coimbra 1898)Google Scholar; Disney, Anthony, ‘The Portuguese Overland Courier Service between Europe and India in the Seventeenth Century’ in: Candeppe, E.C.T. and Fernandopulle, M.S.S. eds., Don Peter Felicitation Volume (Colombo 1983)Google Scholar.

2 Algemeen Rijksarchief The Hague (ARA), Archief Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (VOC); 1206, 734. Letter Gerardo Pelgrom and Surat Council to Maetsuycker and Council i n Batavia, 10 April 1654.

3 Furber, Holden, Rival Empires of Trade in the Orient (Minneapolis 1976) 110–112;Google ScholarKaepelin, F., La Compagnie des hides Orientates et Francois Martin (Paris 1908) 79–86;Google ScholarGlamann, Kristof, Dutch-Asiatic Trade 1620–1740 (2nd ed. The Hague 1982) Chapter III and IVGoogle Scholar.

4 VOC 1548,453. Daily register Surat, 12 March 1693.

5 Deloche, J., La Circulation en Inde avant la Revolution des Transports 2 vols., vol. I (Paris 1980) 278–292Google Scholar; H.D. Love, Vestiges of Old Madras 1640-1800 3 vols., vol. II (New York 1968 repr.) 104; VOC 1559, 864. A. Hooghcamer (Isfahan) to C. Verdonck (Gombroon), 23 November 1693.

6 On the economic importance of Tabriz cf. Geidarov, N.V., Remeslenoe proistvostvo v gorodachAzerbaidjana (Baku 1967)Google Scholar; Rahmani, A.Azerbaidjan v kontse XVI i XVII Vekov (Baku 1981) 176ffGoogle Scholar.

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8 On Persian intelligence missions cf. Steensgaard, N., The Asian Trade Revolution of theSeventeenth Century (London 1973)Google Scholar; Palombini, B. von, Bündniswerben abendländischer Mächte urn Persien 1453–1600 (Wiesbaden 1968);Google Scholar V.V. Bushev, Istoria posoltsvic i diplomaticeskic otnosjenjij Ruskogo Transkogo gosudarstvo 1586–16121 (Moscow 1976).

9 Baqué-Grammont, J.L.: Les Ottomans, Us Safavides et leur voisins (Istanbul 1987) 120tT;VOC 1520, 215. Report by the ambassador Jan van Leene to the G.G. and Council concerning his performance at the Persian court, 20June 1692.Google Scholar

10 On Israel Orli cf. Esof, W. ed., Snosenije Pjotr Velikowo s Armanskowo Narodow (St. Petersburg 1889) xxxii;VOC 1398, 611. Justus van Heuvel (Isfahan) to the Heeren XVII, 13 October 1685; VOC 1439, 1640. Report Justus van Heuvel to GG and Council concerning his performance at the Persian court, 4 January 1687Google Scholar.

11 VOC 1315, 640. Frederick L. Bent and Council (Combroon) to GG and Council, 20January 1677; Ibidem. Letter postmaster Moscovia to the Council in Persia; on Van Klenck cf. Likacev, A. ed., Posolst-vo kunrade Fan Klenke k Carjan Aleksjiu Michajlovicu i Feodoru Aleskeivicu(st. Petersburg 1900)Google Scholar.

12 On Père du Mans cf. Schefer, C.H., Estat de la Perse en 1660 (Paris 1889) Introduction; for his relations with the VOC cf.Google Scholarmy forthcoming Ph.D. Thesis ‘Winst en tribuut. Oorlogen handel in de Arabische Zeeën’ (Leyden University)Chapter IVGoogle Scholar.

13 VOC 322, 464. General letter of the Heeren XVII to Batavia, 1 November 1687; for investments of Van Klenck cf. VOC 7069–7071. General stock ledgers of the VOC, Chamber of Amsterdam.

14 Rijksarchief Provincie Utrecht, Ancien Archive de I'Abbaye Port Royal 3753. D. Vallet to M. de Montaigne; Ibidem. Vallet to séminaire, 12 December 1720; Ibidem. Vallet to Cruys, 21 February 1720.

15 On the early factory in Yemen cf. Terpstra, H., De Opkomst van de Westerkwartieren van den Oost-lndischen Compagnie (The Hague 1908) 106–136;Google ScholarBrouwer, G., ‘Willem de Milde, Khani Shalabi en Fadli Pasha of een dienaar van de VOC op audiëntie bij de Beglarbeg van Jemen’, De GidsW, 2/3 (1980) 375–391; VOC 1625, 114-116. Report of Nicolaes Welters (Mocha), 16 September 1699Google Scholar.

16 VOC 1241, 589-590. Letter consul A.J. Theyle de Jonge from Cairo to the Director and Council in Persia, 3 February 1663; Ibidem, 572-579. Van Wyck and Council to the Heeren XVII, 15 February 1664; VOC 889, 515. Batavia to Persia, 15 February 1663; ARA, Archief Directie Levantsche Handel 2, Resolutions Chamber of Amsterdam, 9January 1664, p. 4.

17 VOC 1548, 499. Daily register Surat, 28 August 1693; ARA, Archief Staten-Generaal 6909, Liassen Barbarije 1660–1664 (dispatches received from Barbary Coast), Levinus Warnerius ad statis confederatae Bataviae, 20 September 1660.

18 For the roads from Persia to Europe cf. Emerson, J., ‘Ex Occidente Lux: some European Sources on the Economic Structure of Persia’ (unpubl. Ph.D. Thesis, Cambridge University, 1969) Part I andGoogle ScholarGrant, P.N., The Syrian Desert (London 1937)Google Scholar.

19 Directie Levantsche Handel 192 II, Letters of J. Pels to the Board of Directors from 21 February onwards (enclosures to letters received from Istanbul).

20 On overseas communication cf. Bruijn, J., Gaastra, F. and Schoffer, I., Dutch-Asiatic Shipping in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century (The Hague 1987)Google Scholar.

21 VOC 322, 649. Heeren XVII to the Council in Persia, 27 June 1691; Ibidem, 643. General letter to Asia, 27June 1691; VOC 317, 262. Heeren XVII to Council in Batavia, 24July 1652.

22 VOC 221. Resolutions Heeren XVII, 12 April 1657, 9 December 1689 and 28 August 1691; VOC 317, 504. Heeren XVII to Westerkwartieren, 4 October 1657.

23 ARA, Collection Geleynssen de Jongh 169a, Letter from consul Jan Vlasbloem (Aleppo) to Geleynssen, 28 April 1642; Ibidem 191a, Jan Vlasbloem to Hendrick van Wijnen, 31 March 1642; VOC 930, 1227, GG and Council Batavia to Persia, 1 October 1697.

24 Abstracts of Gombroon letters cf. Legatiearchief Consulaat Smyrna aIII, 352, 426; VOC 1245, 509. Director and Council Persia to Heeren XVII, 29 April 1665; VOC 1718, 1341, sentence against Adriaen Hooghcamer regarding illegal diamond trade; Meilink-Roelofsz, M.A.P., ‘The earliest Relations between Persia and the Netherlands’, Persica 6 (1974) 30, 33Google Scholar; Dunlop, H. ed., Bronnen tot de Geschiedenis van de Oost-Indische Compagnie in Perzie (The Hague 1932) 297IT; VOC 323, Heeren XVII to Batavia, 27 January 1692Google Scholar.

25 P.A. Leupe, ‘Johan Leeuwensz.: “Journal van de Overlandreize” ’, Bijdragen lot de Taal-, Land-en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie, 6; VOC 1304, 500, Memorandum by Francois de Haze to his successor Frederick Bent, May 1674.

26 Collectie Geleynssen 283, 421, Dircq Sarcerius (Basra) to Geleynssen, 31 August 1646; Ibidem, 406, Lockhorst (Isfahan) to Geleynssen, 2 August 1646.

27 On Tavernier's life cf. Joret, C., Jean-Baptiste Tavemier (Paris 1886)Google Scholar; Collectie Geleynssen 283, 405, Letter Lockhorst to Geleynssen, 2 August 1646; Ibidem, 388, Lockhorst to Geleynssen, 30 May 1646; Ibidem, Lockhorst to Geleynssen, 4 October 1646; Ibidem 287, Nicolaes Verburch, Willem Bastincq andJan Maertsz. Ham (Isfahan) to Geleynssen, 12 May 1647.

28 VOC 1667, Letters from Ardinois and Feleciaen (Aleppo) to Isfahan, 8 October 1701, 6 January 1702; Directie Levantsche Handel 247, Treasury book Aleppo; VOC 1614, 1121, Francois Castelijn and Adriaen Backer to Heeren XVII, 8 July 1700; Collectie Geleynssen 247, Register ofoutstanding debts, 16August 1640-6 November 1642.

29 Vries, J. de, The Economy of Europe in an Age of Crisis (Cambridge 1978) 189.Google Scholar

30 Disney, ‘The Portuguese Overland Courier Service’; Tucci, Ugo, ‘Mercanti Veneziani in India alia Fin del'secolo XVI’ in: Studi in onore di Armando Sapori II (Milano 1957) 1091 ffGoogle Scholar.

31 Leupe, “Brievenvervoer over land naar Indie”, 66; cf. Groot, A.H. de, The Ottoman Empire and the Dutch Republic (Leiden 1978) 312; Dunlop, Bronnen tot de Geschiedenis 56Google Scholar.

32 VOC 7143, 149ff. General journal Chamber of Amsterdam.

33 This series is not mentioned in ARA, Archief Ministerie van Koloniën, Koloniaal Verbaal 25–30 December 1828, Inventaris Oost-Indisch Archief. But it must have included letters from Paris, London, Lisbon and Bergen, where the VOC also paid regularly correspondents. Cf. VO C 71431T; for examples of letters from Aleppo cf. Dunlop, Bronnen tot de Geschiedenis 56, 146–147,153ff, 179–180.

34 VOC 1266,922. Director and Council Persia to Heeren XVII, 28 February 1669. But not the other way round cf. VOC 1490, 144-230. French letters intercepted by the ambassador in Persia, Jan van Leene; Directie Levantsche Handel 192 I. Letters from the correspondent in Paris to the Board of Directors; Heeringa, H. ed., Bronnen tot de Geschiedenis van de Levantsche Handel II (The Hague 1906) 1071–1079Google Scholar.

35 VOC 1567, 145–344, Remonstrance Pieter van Helsdingen in Surat to Paulus de Roo, 22 June 1695.

36 Directie Levantsche Handel 28, Letterbooks, Letter Director to Van Dam, 24 August 1674, p. 100; VOC 1302, 71, Francois de Haze and Council to Batavia, 13 September 1673; VOC 1295,404,417, Letters from Persia to Heeren XVII, 19 September 1672.

37 For instance cf. VOC 317, 90, General letter Heeren XVI I to Asia, 4 October 1674; Ibidem, Heeren XVII to Batavia, 14 October 1651.

38 VOC 1559, 772, Verdonck (Gombroon) to Adriaen Hooghcamer, 10 October 1692; Ibidem, 774, Verdonck to Hooghcamer, 24 October 1692; Ibidem, 783, Hooghcamer to Verdonck, 2 January 1692.

39 CollectieGeleynssen 171a, Hendrick vanTuijnen to Geleynssen, 14 October 1642.

40 On the Carmelite mission cf. Chick, H.G., A Chronicle of the Carmelite Mission into Persia and the Papal Mission of the Seventeenth Century (2 vols.; London 1939)Google Scholar.

41 Cf. Hotz, A., ‘Cornells Roobacker's Reisjournaal Gamrun-Basra’, Tijdschrift Koninklijk Aardrijkskundig Genootschap 24, 3 (1907); Collectie Geleynssen 284, Bastincq to Heeren XVII, 14 December 1645Google Scholar.

42 Cf. for instance VOC 895,636, Batavia to Persia, April 1672.

43 ARA, Archief Hoge Regering Batavia 876, Instructions from the resigning director Hendrick van Wijck to the new director Huybert de Lairesse, 22 March 1666; VOC 1188, 361-364, Instructions toJacob Willemsz. and Jan Maertsz. Ham in Isfahan, 14June 1652; VOC 1266, 921, Letter Director and Council in Persia to Heeren XVII, 28 February 1669.

44 VOC 232, Heeren XVI I to Batavia, 27 August 1694.

45 VOC 1234, 188, Hendrick van Wijck and Council to Heeren XVII, 25 March 1662; VOC 1270,885, Director and Council Persia to Heeren XVII, 24 April 1670.

46 Staten Generaal 6906, Liassen Barbarije, Ghisberti to Staten Generaal, 30 April 1650; cf. Directie Levantsche Handel 74, Reglement vaart op den Middellansche Zee, p. 2; Israels, J., ‘The Phases of Dutch Straatvaart’, Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis 99, 2 (1986) 21–24Google Scholar.

47 On Livorno cf. Mori, G., ‘Linee e momenti dello sviluppo della citta, del porto e dei traffici di Livorno’ in: La Regione: Rivista regionale della provinzie Toscane III (1956); cf. for instance Directie Levantsche Handel 186 I, Letters from Livorno, Extract letter from Livorno to Board, 2 July 1674, 25 March 1675Google Scholar.

48 Directie Levantsche Handel 122, Letters from Smyrna, Letter Mortier to Board, 9 October 1657; Ibidem 192 II, Letter from the Council of Wesel to Mayor Amsterdam; Ibidem. J. van Mouwen to Board, 11 January 1658; Ibidem, Les frères Fischer intendants des postes en Suisse au conseil, 19 Avril 1704; VOC 1266,922, Persia to Heeren XVII, 28 February 1669.

49 VOC 1209, Daily register Basra, 12 September 1653, 12 September 1653.

50 On Arabistan/Khuzestan cf. Kasravi, A., Tarikh-ipanjsadsal Khuzestan (Teheran 1330/1951);Google ScholarLongrigg, L., Three Centuries of Modern Iraq (London 1968)Google Scholar.

51 Cf. Longrigg, Three Centuries, 120–122.

52 VOC 1507, 450-451, Director and Council Gombroon to Heeren XVII, 21 October 1693: Ibidem 466-467, Director and Council Gombroon to Heeren XVII, 2 August 1693; VOC 922, 1370, Batavia to Persia, 3 August 1693.

53 Cf. for instance Chardin, J., Voyages en Perse et en autre Lieu de I'Orient II (Paris 1821) 263–264; Hoge Regering Batavia 876, Instructions to the new directorHuybert de Lairesse, 22 March 1666Google Scholar.

54 These notes are mainly based upon Collectie Geleynssen 244, Account of monthly expenses, 31 July 1641–13 December 1641; Ibidem 153a, Copy instruction to Hendrick van Tuijnen and Hendrick Walckaert, 20 August 1640 p. 9; Ibidem 157, Letter to Hendrick van Tuijnen, 28 May 1641.

55 Collectie Geleynssen 283, Lockhorst to Geleynssen, 2 August 1646 p. 407; Ibidem 153, Letter Geleynssen to De Graaf, 11 August 1641.

56 Middle-Eastern seventeenth century wages however have been very badly researched. For the sixteenth century cf. Barkan, O.L., ‘XVI Asrin ikinci yarasinda Tiirkije’ -de fiyat hareketlari', Belleten 34/132 (1970) 557–607Google Scholar.

57 Walser, S. Schuster, Das Safawidische Persien im Spiegel Europaischer Reiseberichte 1502-1722 (Baden-Baden 1970) 43; Chardin, Voyages en Perse VIII 407; VO C 1542, 748–785, Report by Jan van Leene concerning the embassy to the Persian court, 21 January 1695; Ibidem, 786–799, Expenses made by Jan van Leene, 5 November 1694.Google Scholar

58 Grant, Syrian Desert p. 77.

59 Guerreiro, A.Machado ed., Pe Manuel Godinho: Relacao do.novo caminho quefcz por terra e mar vindo da India por Portugal (Lisbon 1974)Google Scholar; Correia-Alfonso, J., ‘Manuel Godinho's alternative to the carreira da India’ in: Souza, T.R. da ed., Indo-Portuguese History: Old Issues new Questions (New Delhi 1984) 81–87. Actually both Disney and da Souza Vitterbo are wrong in thinking that Portugal did not entertain any further communications along the overland route in the second half of the seventeenth century, cf. for instance Staten Generaal 7015 (Box two)/Liassen Portugal 1684–1691 (dispatches received from Portugal), Wolffsen to Staten Generaal, 26June 1691; Ibidem, lOJuly 1691Google Scholar.