² Electronic mail communication from the conference organisers in Leiden.

³ Weber, David J., The Spanish Frontier in North America (New Haven 1992).Google Scholar

⁴ Baylin, Bernard, ‘The Idea of Atlantic History’, Itinerario 20/1 (1996) 19–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵ Two classic works are Ricard, Robert, The Spiritual Conquest of Mexico: An Essay on the Apostolate and the Evangelizing Methods of the Mendicant Orders in New Spain, 1523-1572 (Berkeley 1966) andGoogle ScholarBoxer, C.R., The Church Militant and Iberian Expansion, 1440-1770 (Baltimore 1978). Recent works includeGoogle ScholarSchwaller, John Frederick, Origins of Church Wealth in Mexico: Ecclesiastical Revenues and Church Finances, 1523-1600 (Albuquerque 1985) andGoogle ScholarThe Church and Clergy in Sixteenth-Century Mexico (Albuquerque 1987); and the landmark work byGoogle ScholarAlden, Dauril, The Making of an Enterprise: The Society of Jesus in Portugal, Its Empire, and Beyond, 1540-1750 (Stanford 1996), the first volume of a projected seriesGoogle Scholar.

⁶ Burkholder, Mark A. and Johnson, Lyman L., Colonial Latin America (third edition, New York 1998) 234.Google Scholar

⁷ Alden, Making of An Enterprise, discusses the early Jesuit colleges in detail. See also Boxer, Church Militant.

⁸ A very rare Mexican codex of Spanish theater music from the seventeenth century, recently discovered, reveals as much about theater performances in Spain as in Mexico. John Koegel, ‘New Sources of Music from Spain and Colonial Mexico at the Sutro Library’, Notes (Quarterly Journal of the Music Library Association) 55/3 (March 1999) 583-613. At the level of popular religion, a colonial codex discovered in Guatemala in the 1960s represents the fusion of Catholic liturgy with Indian rhythms in honour of the Virgin of Guadalupe, revered in both Spain and Spanish America. ‘Guadalupe: Virgen de los Indios’, San Antonio Vocal Arts Ensemble (Talking Taco/Iago Records). A more modern example of this fusion is the 1921 ‘Misa Criolla’ or ‘Creole Mass’ by Ariel Ramírez.

⁹ See Foster, George M., Culture and Conquest: America's Spanish Heritage (Chicago 1960)Google Scholar; Johnson, H.B. ed., From Reconquest to Empire: The Iberian Background to Latin American History (New York 1970)Google Scholar; Weckmann, Luis, The Medieval Heritage of Mexico (New York 1992). No comprehensive study has appeared for Portugal and BrazilGoogle Scholar.

¹⁰ Crosby, Alfred W., The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport 1972).Google Scholar

¹¹ See Steele, Arthur Robert, Flowers for the King: The Expedition of Ruiz and Pavon and the Flora of Peru (Durham 1964)Google Scholar; Cook, Warren L., Floodtide of Empire: Spain and the Pacific Northwest, 1543-1819 (New Haven 1973); andGoogle ScholarEngstrand, Iris H., Spanish Scientists in the New World: The Eighteenth Century Expeditions (Seattle 1981). The records of one of the most important voyages, that of Alessandro Malespina, has been published in facsimile: Diario de viaje de Alejandro Malaspina (Madrid 1984)Google Scholar.

¹² To cite only two of the many recent works, Anthony Grafton, with April Shelford, and Siraisi, Nancy, New Worlds, Ancient Texts: The Power of Tradition and the Shock of Discovery (Cambridge 1992); andGoogle ScholarLockhart, James ed., We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico (Berkeley and Los Angeles 1993)Google Scholar.

¹³ Regarding law, the Centro de Estudios Políticos y Constitucionales in Madrid has just published a three-volume facsimile edition of the 1791 Leyes de Indias. Several other multi-volume editions also exist, but they were last published some fifty years ago. See also Manuel Ayala, Josef, Diccionario de gobierno y legislacion de Indias, edited by Mingo, Marta Milagros del Vas (Madrid: Ediciones de Cultura Hispànica, 1988-1999), with twelve volumes published by 1999Google Scholar.

¹⁴ For broad surveys and additional bibliography, see Sánchez-Albornoz, Nicolás, The Population of Latin America: A History (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1974)Google Scholar; Thornton, Russell, American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History since 1492 (Norman 1987); andGoogle ScholarBethell, Leslie, ‘A Note on the Native American Population on the Eve of the European Invasions’ in: Bethell, Leslie ed., The Cambridge History of Latin America I (Cambridge 1984) 145–146. The pioneering work of Peter Boyd-Bowman laid the basis for most later studies of the Spanish immigrant population.Google ScholarBoyd-Bowman, , Indice geobiográfico de 55,000 pobladores de América en el siglo XVI (Mexico 1985)Google Scholar; Henige, David, Numbers from Nowhere: The American Indian Contact Population Debate (Norman 1998)Google Scholar; Cook, Noble David, Born to Die: Disease and New World Conquest, 1492-1650 (Cambridge 1998)Google Scholar.

¹⁵ Morner, Magnus, ‘Immigration into Latin America, Especially Argentina and Chile’ in: Emmer, P.C. and Morner, Magnus eds, European Expansion and Migration: Essays on the Intercontinental Migration from Africa, Asia, and Europe (New York 1992) 211–243.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Shaw, Carlos Martínez, La emigración espanola a America (1492-1824) (Gijón 1994)Google Scholar; Jacobs, Auke Pieter, ‘Legal and Illegal Emigration from Seville, 1550-1650’ in: Altaian, Ida and Horn, James eds, ‘To Make America’: European Emigration in the Early Modern Period (Berkeley 1991) 59–84Google Scholar.

¹⁷ Boyd-Bowman, Peter, ‘Patterns of Spanish Emigration to the Indies, 1579-1600’, The Americas 33/1 (1976) 78–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Boyd-Bowman's path-breaking work with the official passenger registries in Seville established a whole sub-field of inquiry and has produced a wealth of published work. See also Roel, Antonio Eiras, ‘Introductión: Consideraciones sobre la emigración española y portuguesa a América: y su contexto demográfico’ Actas del II Congreso de la Asociación de Demografia Historica (Alicante 1991) 9–32. See also the pioneering work ofGoogle ScholarBoxer, C.R., Women in Iberian Expansion Overseas, 1415-1815 (New York 1975)Google Scholar.

¹⁸ Serrão, Joel, A Emigraæão Portuguesa (Lisbon 1974) 105–106.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Higgs, David, ‘Portuguese Migration Before 1800’ in: Higgs, David ed., Portuguese Migration in Global Perspective (Toronto 1990) 7–28; see alsoGoogle ScholarCoates, Timothy J., Degredados e Orfds: Colonizaæão dirigida pela coma no império portugués, 1550-1755 (Lisbon 1998)Google Scholar.

²⁰ Altaian, Ida and Horn, James, ‘Introduction’ in: Altaian, and Horn, eds, ‘To Make America’, 1–30.Google Scholar

²¹ Vitorino Magalháes Godinho, ‘Portuguese Emigration from the Fifteenth to the Twentieth Century: Constants and Changes’ in: Emmer, and Morner, eds, European Expansion and Migration, 13–48. Godinho estimated total emigration at around 280,000 for 1500-1580; 300,000 for 1580-1640; 150,000 for 1640-1700; and 600,000 for 1700-1760Google Scholar.

²² Konetzke, Richard, ‘Legislatión sobre inmigración de extranjeros en América durante la época colonial’, Revista Internacional de Sociología 3 (1945) 269–299Google Scholar; and idem ‘La legislación sobre inmigración de extranjeros en América durante el reinado de Carlos V ’in: Charles Quint et son temps (Paris 1959) 93-111.

²³ Cancho, Miguel Rodríguez and Grajera, Alfonso Rodríguez, ‘Análisis y estructura demográfica del área migratoria extremena durañte el siglo XVI’, Emigración española y portuguesa a América: Adas del II Congreso de la Asociación de Demografía Histórica (Alicante 1991) 61–71.Google Scholar

²⁴ Rowland, Robert, ‘Emigración, estructura y region en Portugal (siglos XVI-XIX)’, Emigración espanola y portuguesa a América: Adas del II Congreso de la Asociación de Demografía Histórica (Alicante 1991) 137–146.Google Scholar

²⁵ Curtin, Philip D., The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census (Madison 1969)Google Scholar; Inikori, Joseph and Engerman, Stanley eds, The Atlantic Slave Trade: Effects on Economics, Society, and Peoples in Africa, the Americas, and Europe (Durham 1997)Google Scholar; Franco, Marisa Vega, El tráfīco de esclavos con America: Asientos de Grillo y Lomelín, 1663-1674 (Seville 1984)Google Scholar; Miller, Joseph C., Way of Death: Merchant Capitalism and the Angolan Slave Trade, 1730-1830 (Madison 1988)Google Scholar; Vilar, Enriqueta Vila, Hispanoamérica y el comercio de esclavos: Los asientos Portugueses (Seville 1977).Google Scholar Vila Vilar prepared a database on 571 Portuguese voyages to Spanish America during the period 1595-1640. Much recent scholarship relies on that database, housed at the W.E.B. DuBois Institute.

²⁶ P.C. Emmer, ‘European Expansion and Migration: The European Colonial Past and Intercontinental Migration; An Overview’ in: Emmer, and Mörner, eds, European Expansion and Migration, 1–12;Google ScholarEltis, David, ‘Free and Coerced Transatlantic Migrations: Some Comparisons’, The American Historical Review 88 (1983) 251–280;CrossRefGoogle ScholarMorgan, Philip D., ‘The Cultural Implications of the Atlantic Slave Trade: African Regional Origins, American Destinations and New World Developments’, Slavery and Abolition 18/1 (1997) 122–145;CrossRefGoogle ScholarEltis, David and Richardson, David, ‘The “Numbers Game” and Routes to Slavery’, Slavery and Abolition 18/1 (1997) 1–15CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁷ Eltis, ‘Free and Coerced Transatlantic Migrations’.

²⁸ Sánchez, Carlos Alberto González, Dineros de Ventura: La varia fortuna de la emigratión a Indias (siglos XVI-XWI) (Seville 1995).Google Scholar

²⁹ Altman, Ida, Emigrants and Society: Extremadura and America in the Sixteenth Century (Berkeley 1989)Google Scholar; Ida Altman, ‘A New World in the Old: Local Society and Spanish Emigration to the Indies’ in: Altman, and Horn, eds, ‘To Make America’, 30–58Google Scholar.

³⁰ Ducasse, Javier Ortíz de la Tabla, ‘Rasgos socioecónomicos de los emigrantes a Indias. Indianos de Guadalcanal: sus actividades en América y sus legados a la metrópoli, siglo XVII’, Andaluc!ia y América en el siglo XVII I (Seville 1985) 29–62.Google Scholar

³¹ The series called Andalucía y América (Seville 1983), analyses the continuing ties between Spaniards in the Indies and their homeland in south-western Spain. There are sets of volumes for the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries.

³² Juan Javier Pescador, ‘La nación Bascongada: Ethnic Identities and Transatlantic Communities in the Spanish Empire (1570-1690)’, paper presented to the annual meeting of the SSPHS, San Diego, California, 17 April 1999.

³³ Douglass, William A. and Bilbao, Jon, Amerikanuak: Basques in the New World (Reno 1975) 107–111.Google Scholar

³⁴ Tamar Herzog, ‘Private Organizations as Global Networks in Early-Modern Spain and Spanish America: The Real Congregation de San Fermín de los Navarros (Seventeenth-Eighteenth Centuries)’, paper presented to the annual meeting of the SSPHS, San Diego, California, 17 April 1999.

³⁵ Socolow, Susan, The Merchants of Buenos Aires 1778-1810: Family and Commerce (Cambridge 1978)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Vilar, Enriqueta Vila, Los Corzo y los Manara: Tipos y arquetipos del mercader con Indias (Sevilla 1991)Google Scholar; Lugar, Catherine, ‘Merchants’ in: Hoberman, Louisa S. and Socolow, Susan M. eds, Cities and Society in Colonial Latin America (Albuquerque 1986) 47–75;Google ScholarHoberman, Louisa Schell, ‘Merchants in Seventeenth-Century Mexico City: A Preliminary Portrait’, The Hispanic American Historical Review 57/3 (1977) 479–503CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁶ Varela, Consuelo, Colóny los florentinos (Madrid 1988)Google Scholar; Pike, Ruth, Enterprise and Adventure: The Genoese in Seville and the Opening of the New World (Ithaca 1966)Google Scholar; Pike, Ruth, Aristocrats and Traders: Sevillian Society in the Sixteenth Century (Ithaca 1972)Google Scholar; Villena, Guillermo Lohmann, Les Espinosa, unefamille d'hommes d'affaires en Espagne et aux Indes a l'époque de la colonisation (Paris 1968)Google Scholar.

³⁷ Brading, D.A., Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico, 1763-1810 (Cambridge 1971).Google ScholarSmith, David G. and Flory, Rae, ‘Bahian Merchants and Planters in the Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries’ in: Subrahmanyam, Sanjay ed., Merchant Networks in the Early Modern World (Brookfield 1996) 339–362;Google ScholarTutino, John, ‘Power, Class, and Family: Men and Women in the Mexican Elite 1750-1810’, The Americas 39 (1983) 359–382CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁸ Cooney, Jerry W., ‘Oceanic Commerce and Platine Merchants, 1796-1806: The Challenge of War’, The Americas 45/4 (April 1989) 509–524;CrossRefGoogle ScholarMazzeo, Cristina Ana, El comercio libre en el Peru, 1777-1815 (Lima 1994)Google Scholar; Garritz, Amaya ed., Los vascos en las regiones de Mexico: siglos XVI-XX (Mexico 1996)Google Scholar; Suárez, Margarita, Comercio yfraude en el Perú colonial (Lima 1995)Google Scholar.

³⁹ H.B.Johnson ed., From Reconquest to Empire: The Iberian Background to Latin American History (New York 1970)Google Scholar; Johnson, H.B., ‘The Donatary Captaincy in Perspective: Portuguese Backgrounds to the Settlement of Brazil’, HAHR 52/2 (1972) 203–214.Google ScholarSchwartz, Stuart B., ‘The Formation of a Colonial Identity in Brazil’ in: Canny, Nicholas and Pagden, Anthony eds, Colonial Identity in the Atlantic World, 1500-1800 (Princeton 1987)Google Scholar; Pagden, Anthony, ‘Identity Formation in Spanish America’ in: Colonial Identity in the Atlantic World, 51–93Google Scholar.

⁴⁰ Johnson, Lyman, ‘Artisans’ in: Hoberman, and Socolow, eds, Cities and Society in Colonial Latin America, 227–250;Google ScholarLockhart, James, ‘Encomienda and Hacienda: The Evolution of the Great Estate in the Spanish Indies’, HAHR 49/3 (1969) 411–429Google Scholar.

⁴¹ Bishko, Charles Julian, ‘The Castilian as Plainsman: The Medieval Ranching Frontier in La Mancha and Extremadura’ in: Lewis, Archibald R. and McGann, Thomas F. eds, The New World Looks at Its History (Austin 1963) 47–69.Google Scholar

⁴² Nader, Helen, Liberty in Absolutist Spain: The Habsburg Sale of Towns, 1516-1700 (Baltimore 1991).Google Scholar

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⁴⁵ Socolow, Susan, ‘Introduction’ in: Hoberman, and Socolow, eds, Cities and Society in Colonial Latin America, 3–18;Google ScholarFrancisco Domínguez Compañy, La vida en las pequeñas ciudades hispanoamericanas de la conquista, 1494-1549 (Madrid 1978)Google Scholar; Nuttall, Zelia, ‘Royal Ordinances Concerning the Laying Out of New Towns’, HAHR 4/4: (1921) 743–753, andGoogle ScholarHAHR 5/2 (1922) 249-254; Morse, Richard, ‘Some Characteristics of Latin American Urban History’, AHR 67 (1964) 317–338;Google ScholarMorse, Richard, ‘Latin American Cities: Aspects of Function and Structure’, Comparative Studies of Society and History 4 (July 1962) 473–493;CrossRefGoogle ScholarFrancisco Dominguez Compañy, Política de poblamiento de España en América y la fundación de ciudades (Madrid 1984)Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ Oss, Adrian C. Van, ‘Central America's Autarkic Colonial Cities 1600-1800’ in: Telkamp, Ross ed., Colonial Cities (Dordrecht 1985) 33–49.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Russell-Wood, A.J.R., ‘Ports of Colonial Brazil’ in: Knight, Franklin W. and Liss, Peggy K., Atlantic Port Cities (Knoxville 1991) 196–239;Google ScholarSchwartz, Stuart B., ‘Cities of Empire: Mexico and Bahia in the Sixteenth Century’, Journal of Inter-American Studies 11/4 (1969) 616–637CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁸ Johnson, H.B., ‘The Portuguese Settlement of Brazil, 1500–1580’ in: Bethell, Leslie ed., The Cambridge History of Latin America I (Cambridge and New York 1984) 268–275.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Schwartz, Stuart B., Sugar Plantations in the Formation of Brazilian Society: Bahia, 1550–1835 (Cambridge and New York 1985) 422–423.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Barrett, Ward J. and Schwartz, Stuart B., ‘Comparación entre dos economías azucareras coloniales: Morelos, Mexico y Bahia, Brasil’ in: Florescano, Enrique ed., Haciendas, latifundios y plantaciones en América Latina (Mexico 1975) 540–542;Google ScholarInikori, Joseph E., ‘Slavery and Atlantic Commerce, 1650–1800’, The American Economic Review 82/2 (May 1992) 151–157Google Scholar.

⁵¹ Mauro, Frédéric, Études économiques sur l'expansion portugaise, 1500–1900 (Paris 1970) 122–125;Google ScholarVerger, Pierre, Bahia and the West African Trade, 1549–1851 (Ibadan 1970) 5–6Google Scholar.

⁵² Carroll, Patrick J. reviews several recent books on slavery and the slave trade in the Latin American Research Review 31 (Winter 1996).Google Scholar Other contributions to the ongoing debate appear in Solow, Barbara L. ed., Slavery and the Rise of the Atlantic System (Cambridge 1993)Google Scholar.

⁵³ Mauro, Frédéric, Le Portugal, le Brésil et l'Atlantique au XWIe siècle (1560–1670) (Paris 1983) 315–321, 327–330, 387–405, 421–423.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Summaries of the literature can be found in Lockhart, James and Schwartz, Stuart B., Early Latin America: A History of Colonial Spanish America and Brazil (Cambridge and New York 1983) 369–388;Google ScholarRussell-Wood, A.J.R., ‘Colonial Brazil: The Gold Cycle, c. 1690–1750’ in: Bethell, Leslie ed., The Cambridge History of Latin America II (Cambridge and New York 1984) 547–600.CrossRefGoogle Scholar See also Morineau, Michel, ‘Or brésilien et gazettes hollandaises (1699–1806)’, Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine 25 (1978) 3–60;CrossRefGoogle Scholar reprinted in Incroyables gazettes etfabuleux métaux: Les retours de trésors américains d'après les gazettes hollandaises (XVIe-XVIIIe siècles) (Cambridge and New York 1985) 120–217Google Scholar.

⁵⁵ Unesco, , La traite négrière du XVe au XIXe siècle (Paris 1979).Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Mauro, , Études économiques, 128–129;Google ScholarGodinho, , ‘Portugal, les flottes du sucre, et les flottes de l'Or’, 196–197.Google ScholarThornton, John K., Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400–1800 (Cambridge and New York, 1992)Google Scholar argues for the primacy of regional perspectives in understanding the Atlantic economy.

⁵⁷ Morineau, , Incroyables gazettes, 122–145;Google ScholarGodinho, , ‘Portugal, les flottes du sucre, et les flottes de l'Or’, 192–193;Google ScholarMorineau, , Incroyables gazettes, 190–197;Google ScholarPinto, Virgilio Noya, Ouro brasileiro e o comercio anglo-portugues: Uma contribuçāo aos estudos da economia atlantica no seculo XVIII (Sāo Paulo 1979) 114, 248–252;Google ScholarMauro, Frédéric, Études économiques, 236Google Scholar.

⁵⁸ Pinto, Noya, Ouro brasileiro, 296.Google Scholar See Mauro, Frédéric, ‘Portugal and Brazil: Political and Economic Structures of Empire, 1580–1750’ in: Bethell, Leslie ed., The Cambridge History of Latin America I (Cambridge and New York 1984) 461–463Google Scholar for Portugal‘S trade with England. Godinho, , ‘Portugal, les flottes du sucre, et les flottes de l‘or’, 191–192Google Scholar.

⁵⁹ Verger, , Bahia and West Africa, 5–11;Google ScholarRussell-Wood, ‘Colonial Brazil: The Gold Cycle’ II, 591–593Google Scholar.

⁶⁰ Pinto, Noya, Ouro brasileiro, 202.Google Scholar

⁶¹ Schwartz, , Sugar Plantations, 164, 422–423.Google ScholarPinto, Noya, Ouro brasileiro, 196–199,Google Scholar cites far lower figures, based on official government statistics.

⁶² For the life of the fleets, see Serrano, Jose Luis Rubio, Arquitectura de las naos y galeones de lasflotas de Indias I (1492–1590) and II (1590–1690) (Milaga 1991);Google ScholarPhillips, Carla Rahn, Six Galleons for the King of Spain: Imperial Defense in the Early Seventeenth Century (Baltimore 1986)Google Scholar; Mangas, Fernando Serrano, Armadas y flotas de laplata, 1620–1648 (Madrid 1989)Google Scholar; Mangas, Fernando Serrano, Los galeones de la carrera de Indias, 1650–1700 (Seville 1985)Google Scholar.

⁶³ Chaunu, , Séville et l'Atlantique, 1504–1650 VI (1) (Paris 1959) 168, 337.Google Scholar I have used the tonnages given in the documentary record, rather than the weighted tonnages calculated by Chaunu. For a fuller version of my analysis of Spanish Atlantic trade, see Phillips, Carla Rahn, ‘The Growth and Composition of Trade in the Iberian Empires, 1450–1750’ in: Tracy, James D. ed., The Rise of Merchant Empires: Long-Distance Trade in the Early Modern World, 1350–1750 (Cambridge and New York 1990) 34–101CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶⁴ Chaunu, , Séville et l'Atlantique VI (2), 1039,Google Scholar contains a list of products typically exported to Spain. See also Crosby, Alfred W., Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900 (Cambridge and New York 1986)Google Scholar.

⁶⁵ Sanz, Lorenzo, Comercio deEspana con America I (Valladolid 1979) 546, 580, 591, 1004–1005;Google ScholarChaunu, , Séville et l'Atlantique Vl (2), 980–981, 988–989;Google ScholarMorineau, , Incroyables gazettes, 336.Google Scholar Jeremy Baskes has studied how cochineal linked indigenous producers in Mexico to the Adantic trade in dyestuffs; his book will soon be published.

⁶⁶ Chaunu, , Séville et l'Atlantique VIII (1), 511Google Scholar; Hamilton, Earl J., American Treasure and the Price Revolution in Spain, 1501–1650 (Cambridge 1934; repr. New York 1964) 42CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bakewell, Peter, ‘Mining in Colonial Spanish America’ in: Bethell, Leslie ed., The Cambridge History of Latin Americall, 141.Google ScholarElliott, J.H., The Old World and the New 1492–1650 (Cambridge and New York 1970) 55–68,Google Scholar provides a helpful summary of the debate over bullion and inflation in the sixteenth century. Earl J. Hamilton is the scholar most often associated with the notion that bullion exercised the most important pressure on European prices. Hamilton, , American Treasure, 283–306Google Scholar.

⁶⁷ Bakewell, , ‘Mining in Colonial Spanish America’, 141Google Scholar; Hamilton, , American Treasure, 42Google Scholar; Sanz, Lorenzo, Comercio de Espana con America II, 166–172Google Scholar.

⁶⁸ Sanz, Lorenzo, Comercio de Espana con America II, 142–146.Google ScholarHamilton, , American Treasure, 37–38,Google Scholar noted that ‘Smuggled treasure has been estimated at from 10 to 50 per cent of the registered, but there is reason to believe that it was rather nearer the former than he latter figure’.

⁶⁹ Canabrava, A.P., O comércio portugués no Rio da Praia (1580–1640) (Sāo Paolo 1944) 163–165.Google ScholarPérez, Demetrio Ramos, Trigo chileno: Navieros del Callao y hacendados limeños entre la crisis agrícola del siglo XVIIy la comercial de la primera mitad del XVIII (Madrid 1967) 11–12, 31–36, 49–52, shows how Chile became a major producer and exporter of wheat by the late seventeenth centuryGoogle Scholar.

⁷⁰ Gonzalez, Antonio Garcia-Baquero, Cádiz y el Atlántico II (Sevilla 1976) 259–265.Google Scholar

⁷¹ Malamud, Carlos D., ‘El comercio directo de Europa con America en el siglo XVHI’, Quinto Centenario I (1981) 25–52,Google Scholar discusses the complex issues involved in assessing the volume and impact of direct (contraband) trade.

⁷² Klein, and Barbier, , ‘Recent Trends in the Study of Spanish American Colonial Public Finance’, Latin American Research Review 23/ I (1988) 51–53,Google Scholar present the brief for continued Spanish dominance.

⁷³ Prada, Valentin Vázquez de, ‘Las rutas comerciales entre Espana y America en el siglo XVII’, Anuario de Estudios Americanos 25 (1968) 203.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ Córdova-Bello, Eleazar, Companias holandesas de navegación neerlandesa (Seville 1964) 57.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ Gonzalez, García-Baquero, Cádiz y el Atlántico I, 67–74.Google ScholarPrada, Vázquez de, ‘Rutas’, 206–208;Google ScholarBrading, D.A., ‘Bourbon Spain and Its American Empire’ in: Bethell, ed., The Cambridge History of Latin America; Vazquez de Prada, ‘Rutas’, 210–211;Google ScholarHussey, Roland Dennis, The Caracas Company, 1728–1874 (Cambridge 1934)Google Scholar; Brading, , ‘Bourbon Spain and Its American Empire’, 412Google Scholar; Gonzalez, García-Baquero, Cádiz y el Atlántico I, 135–136Google Scholar.

⁷⁶ Brading, , ‘Bourbon Spain and Its American Empire’, 415–416,Google Scholar mentions just sixteen per cent for the 1757 fleet. Gonzalez, García-Baquero, Cádiz y el Atlántico I, 552–555.Google Scholar On page 555, Garcia-Baquero Gonzalez implies that agricultural production in Andalusia followed the rhythm of trade, and was thus stimulated by demand. The reality could have been just the opposite, with increased agricultural production in Andalusia stimulating trade in Spanish agricultural products; Gonzalez, Gárcia-Baquero, Cadiz y el Atlántico II, 222–247, 349Google Scholar; Ducasse, Javier de la Tabla, Comercio exterior de Veracruz, 1778–1821: Crisis de dependenda (Seville 1978) 239–240;Google ScholarGarner, Richard L., ‘Silver Production and Entrepreneurial Structure in 18th Century Mexico’, Jahrbuch fur Geschichte von Staat Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Lateinamerikas 17 (1980) 157–185Google Scholar documents the importance of Spanish contributions to the Mexican mining boom of the eighteenth century.

⁷⁷ Inikori, , ‘Slavery and Atlantic commerce, 1650-1800’.Google Scholar

⁷⁸ Kagan, Richard L., Students and Society in Early Modern Spain (Baltimore 1974)Google Scholar; Pina, José Antonio Ollero, ‘Las carreras en Indias de los colegiales de Maese Rodrigo de Sevilla en el siglo XVII’, Andalucía y América en el sigh XVII I (Seville 1985) 119–138Google Scholar.

⁷⁹ Bailyn, , ‘Idea of Atlantic History’, 37,Google Scholar citing works from the 1960s.

⁸⁰ MacLachlan, Colin, Spain‘S Empire in the New World: The Role of Ideas in Institutional and Social Change (Berkeley 1988).Google Scholar The classic institutional studies of the Spanish empire remain Schäfer, Ernst, El Consejo Real y Supremo de las Indias (Seville 1935)Google Scholar; Haring, C.H., The Spanish Empire in America (New York 1952); andGoogle ScholarParry, J.H., The Spanish Seaborne Empire (London 1966)Google Scholar.

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⁸² See, for example, Garritz, Amaya, ‘Los alcaldes ordinarios vascos de la ciudad de México en el siglo XVI’ in: Garritz, Amaya ed., Los vascos en las regiones de México: Siglos XVI-XX (Mexico 1996) 29–39;Google ScholarOrtega, Ana Isabel Martínez, ‘Oligarquía comercial y poder en Campeche, siglo XVIII’, Circulos de Poder en la Nueva España (Mexico 1998) 131–141Google Scholar.

⁸³ Lang, James, Conquest and Commerce: Spain and England in the Americas (New York 1975).Google Scholar

⁸⁴ García, Luis Navarro, Las reformas borbónicas en América: El plan de intendencias y su aplicacion (Seville 1995),Google Scholar describes changes in the bureaucratic structure that these reforms instituted.

⁸⁵ Bailyn, , ‘Idea of Atlantic History’, 37.Google Scholar

⁸⁶ Burkholder, Mark and Chandler, D.S., From Impotence to Authority: The Spanish Crown and the American Audiencias, 1687–1808 (Columbia 1977)Google Scholar; Burkholder, Mark, ‘Bureaucrats’, 83–90.Google Scholar See also Israel, J.I., Race, Class and Politics in Colonial Mexico (London 1975)Google Scholar.

⁸⁷ Serrāo, Joaquim Verissimo, O tempo dos Filipes em Portugal e no Brasil, 1580–1668: Estudos históricos (Libon 1994).Google Scholar

⁸⁸ Schwartz, Stuart B., Sovereignty and Society in Colonial Brazil: The High Court of Bahia and Its Judges, 1609–1751 (Berkeley 1973).Google Scholar Classic studies of colonial Brazil include Rego, A. Da Silva, Portuguese Colonization in the Sixteenth Century: A Study of the Royal Ordinances (Johannesburg 1959) andGoogle ScholarAlden, Dauril, Royal Government in Colonial Brazil, with Special Reference to the Administration of the Marquis of Lavradio, Viceroy, 1769–1779 (Berkeley 1968)Google Scholar.

⁸⁹ Faoro, Raymundo, Os donos do poder: Formafao do patronato politico brasileiro I (Porto Algre 1979) 162.Google Scholar

⁹⁰ Gouvéa, María de Fátima Silva, ‘From Merchants to Nobles: The Councilmen of Rio de Janeiro (1794–1822)’, Paper presented to the Society for Spanish and Portuguese Historical Studies, San Diego, California, 18 April 1999.Google Scholar