Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-j824f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-03T01:41:52.434Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

End of the Empire: The Spanish Philippines and Puerto Rico in the Nineteenth Century*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 June 2011

Abstract

As we pass the Quincentennial of the founding of the Spanish empire we stand within two years of marking the centennial of its demise in Asia and the New World in 1998. In recent years, much research has focused on the changes wrought on indigenous populations at the time of initial contact, but little consideration has been given to the material legacy of this empire. This study will examine the material aspects of two Spanish colonies, the Philippines and Puerto Rico at the end of nearly four centuries of Spanish colonization. Archaeological evidence from the two colonies is compared and contextualised within the economic order of the nineteenth century in order to better evaluate the nature of the physical manifestation of late Spanish colonialism.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Research Institute for History, Leiden University 1997

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Notes

1 Crosby, Alfred W., Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe 900–1900 (Cambridge 1986).Google ScholarSkowronek, Russell Kent, ‘A New Europe in the New World: Hierarchy, Continuity and Change in the Spanish 16th-Century Colonization of Hispaniola and Florida’ (Unpublished PhD thesis, East Lansing 1989).Google ScholarWallerstein, Immanuel, The Modern World-System I: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century (New York 1974).Google Scholar

2 Stavrianos, L.S., Global Rift: The Third World Comes of Age (New York 1981).Google Scholar

3 Skowronek, Russel Kent, ‘Empire and Ceramics: The Changing Role of Illicit Trade in Spanish America’, Historical Archaeology 26/1 (1992) 109111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

4 Goggin, John M., Spanish Majolica in the New World (New Haven 1968) 215216.Google ScholarSkowronek, Russell K., ‘Trade Patterns of 18th Century Frontier New Spain: The 1733 Flota and St Augustine’ in: South, S. ed., Volumes in Historical Archaeology (Columbia 1984), conference on Historic Sites Archaeology, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Skowronek, ‘Empire and Ceramics’, 109–118.Google Scholar

5 Deagan, Kathleen ed., Puerto Real: The Archaeology of a Sixteenth-Century Spanish Town in Hispaniola (Gainesville 1995). Russell K. Skowronek, ‘A New Europe in the New World’Google Scholar

6 Hoover, Robert L., ‘Some Models for Spanish Colonial Archaeology in California’, Historical Archaeology 26/1 (1992) 37. Russell K. Skowronek, ‘A New Europe in the New World’.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

7 Moses, Bernard, Spain Overseas (New York 1929) 75.Google ScholarSchurz, William Lytle, The Manila Galleon (New York 1939).Google Scholar

8 Cushner, Nicholas P., Spain in the Philippines from Conquest to Revolution (Quezon City 1971) 128.Google ScholarLegarda, Benito, ‘Two and a Half Centuries of the Galleon Trade’, Philippine Studies 3/4 (1955) 345372.Google ScholarLyon, Eugene, ‘Track of the Manila Galleons’, National Geographic 178/3 (1990) 14.Google ScholarTubangui, H.R., Bauzon, L.E., Foronda, M.A. Jr and Ausejo, L.U., The Filipino Nation: A Concise History of the Philippines (Philippines 1982) 5153.Google Scholar

9 Bauzon, Leslie E., ‘The Mexican Subsidy’ in: Roces, Alfredo R. ed., Filipino Heritage: The Making of a Nation (Manila 1977) 1037.Google Scholar Cushner, Spain in the Philippines, 132. Moses, Spain Overseas, 75. Phelan, John Leddy, The Hispanization of the Philippines (Madison 1967) 13Google Scholar, 106, 154. Sanz, Manuel, Description of the Mariana Islands (Mangilao 1827, reprinted and translated in 1991, University of Guam) 4, 11–12. Tubangui, Bauzon, Foronda and Ausejo, The Filipino Nation, 47.Google Scholar

10 Cushner, Spain in the Philippines, 129.

11 Bauzon, , ‘The Mexican Subsidy’. Teresa del Valle, The Importance of the Mariana Islands to Spain at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century (Mangilao 1991) 8, 2223.Google Scholar

12 Garcia, Luís de lbáñez y, History of the Marianas, Caroline and Palau Islands (Mangilao 1887, reprinted and translated in 1992, University of Guam) 126128, 177.Google ScholarWelch, David, Goodwin, Conrad and McNeil, Judith, The Development of Agaña, 1500–1991 (Guam 1992) 56. Paper presented at the Society for Historical Archaeology Annual Conference, Kingston, Jamaica, 10 January 1992.Google Scholar

13 Rafael, Vicente L., Contracting Colonialism: Translation and Christian Conversion in Tagalog Society under Early Spanish Rule (Manila 1988) 88.Google Scholar

14 Ibáñez y García, History of the Marianas, xx–xxiii.

15 Bauzon, , ‘The Mexican Subsidy’, 1037. J.J. TePaske, The Governorship of Spanish Florida, 1700–1763 (Durham 1964) 77, 82.Google Scholar

16 Rafael, Contracting Colonialism, 151.

17 Carrion, Arturo Morales, Puerto Rico: A Political and Cultural History (New York 1983) 53.Google ScholarDeagan, Kathleen, Spanish St Augustine: The Archaeology of a Colonial Creole Community (New York 1983) 3438.Google Scholar

18 Valle, The Importance of the Mariana Islands to Spain, 10.

19 Skowronek, ‘Empire and Ceramics’, 109–118. Examples from various colonial areas include: Puerto Rico: Carrion, Puerto Rico, 33, 36, 37, 43–45, 53; Joseph, J.W. and Bryne, Stephen C., ‘Socio-Economics and Trade in Viejo San Juan, Puerto Rico: Observations from the Ballaja Archaeological Project’, Historical Archaeology 26/1 (1992) 50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Florida: Deagan, Spanish St Augustine, 35; Harman, J.E., Trade and Privateering in Spanish Florida, 1732–1763 (St Augustine 1969) 6263Google Scholar; TePaske, The Governorship of Spanish Florida, 74, 88. Philippines: Constantino, Renato, The Philippines: A Past Revisited (Quezon City 1975) 112114Google Scholar; Cushner, Spain in the Philippines, 130–135. California: Costello, Julia G., ‘Purchasing Patterns of the California Missions in ca. 1805’, Historical Archaeology 26/1 (1992) 6263CrossRefGoogle Scholar; David Hornbeck, ‘Economic Growth and Change at the Missions of Alta California, 1769–1846’ in: Thomas, D.H. ed., Columbian Consequences I (Washington 1989) 428.Google Scholar Argentina: Schavelzon, Daniel, Tipología de loza arquelogica de Buenos Aires, 1780–1900 (Buenos Aires 1988).Google Scholar

20 Carrion, Puerto Rico, 37.

21 Crow, John A., Spain: The Root and the Flower (New York 1963) 166.Google ScholarHaring, Clarence H., Trade and Navigation between Spain and the Indies (Cambridge 1918) 119, 153154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

22 Skowronek, ‘Empire and Ceramics’, 109–118.

23 Deagan, Spanish St Augustine, 27. Valle, The Importance of the Mariana Islands, 36.

24 de Jesus, C. ed., The Tobacco Monopoly in the Philippines: Bureaucratic Enterprise and Social Change, 1766–1880 (Quezon City 1980).Google ScholarWolters, Willem G., ‘Sugar Production in Java and the Philippines during the Nineteenth Century’, Philippine Studies 40/4 (1992) 411434.Google Scholar

25 Constantino, The Philippines, 114–115. Corpuz, O.D., The Roots of the Filipino Nation (Quezon City 1989) 458460.Google ScholarSpinola, Maria Lourdes Diaz-Trechuelo, Arquitectura Española en Filipinos, 1565–1800 (Seville 1959) 13451349. Tubangui, Bauzon, Foronda and Ausejo, The Filipino Nation, 85–89.Google Scholar

26 Carrion, Puerto Rico, 43, 45, 52, 57–58. Joseph and Bryne, ‘Socio-Economics and Trade in Viejo San Juan’, 50. Magana, Carlos Solis, Colonial Archaeology of San Juan de Puerto Rico: Excavations at the Casa Rosa Scarp Wall, San Juan National Historic Site, Puerto Rico (Alabama 1988) 1634, 132.Google ScholarWeaver, Guy G. and Morales, H.R. Rodriguez, A Cultural Resources Reconnaissance and Survey of the Rio Puerto Nuevo Flood Control Project, San Juan, Puerto Rico (Atlanta 1989) 1819.Google Scholar

27 Carrion, Puerto Rico, 56. Valle, The Importance of the Mariana Islands, 40.

28 Carrion, Puerto Rico, 53, 64, 87, 93–94.

29 Valle, The Importance of the Mariana Islands, 12–13.

30 Valle, The Importance of the Mariana Islands, 22–24.

31 Sanz, Description of the Mariana Islands, 11–12.

32 Alip, Eufronio M., Ten Centuries of Philippine-Chinese Relations (Manila 1959) 53. Constantino, The Philippines, 115. Corpuz, The Roots of the Filipino Nation, 461–462. Cushner, Spain in the Philippines, 197–200. Tubangui, Bauzon, Foronda and Ausejo, The Filipino Nation, 88–89.Google Scholar

33 Charles, D.Cheek, T.L. Struthers, Jacobs, K. and Alonso, M.M., An Archaeological and Architectural Investigation of Public, Residential and Hydrological Features at the Mid-Nineteenth Century Quintana Thermal Baths, Ponce, Puerto Rico (West Chester 1987) 911, 19.Google ScholarShelton, Catherine N. and Robinson, Linda Stickler, Cultural Resources Survey, Rio Santigao at Naguabo, Puerto Rico (Site N-6) (Newark 1988) 915. Weaver and Rodriguez Morales, A Cultural Resources Reconnaissance, 19–28.Google Scholar

34 Arenas, Rafael Diaz, Report on the Commerce and Shipping of the Philippine Islands (Manila 1838, translated by Alzona, Encarnacion in 1979) 36.Google Scholar

35 Arenas, Report on the Commerce and Shipping, 45–73.

36 Ibáñez y García, History of the Marianas, 126–128.

37 Cheek, Struthers, Jacobs and Alonso, An Archaeological and Architectural Investigation, 9.

38 Shelton and Stickler Robinson, Cultural Resources Survey, 14.

39 Translation of the Code of Commerce in Force in Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines, Amended by the Law of June 10, 1897 (Washington 1899) 1011, Division of Customs and Insular Affairs, War Department.Google Scholar

40 Cushner, Spain in the Philippines, 197.

41 Crouch, Dora P., Garr, Daniel J. and Mundigo, Axel I., Spanish City Planning in North America (Cambridge, 1982).Google ScholarFoster, George M., Culture and Conquest: America's Spanish Heritage (New York 1960). Rafael, Contracting Colonialism, 88. Skowronek, A New Europe in the New World.Google Scholar

42 Delgadillo, Yolanda, McGrath, Thomas B. and Plaza, Felicia, Spanish Forts of Guam (Agana 1979) 5.Google Scholar Diaz-Trechuelo Spinola, Arquitectura Española en Filipinas, Figures 4, 6, 22. Gatbonton, Esperanza B., Bastión de San Diego (Manila 1985) 3, 6, 8, 9, 14. Phelan, The Hispanization of the Philippines, 48.Google Scholar

43 Barroja, Julio Caro, Los Pueblos de Espana (Madrid 1981).Google Scholar

44 Coseteng, Alicia M.L., Spanish Churches in the Philippines (Quezon City 1972) 4460.Google Scholar Diaz-Trechuelo Spinola, Arquitectura Española en Filipinos, Figures 33, 34, 102, 103, 113–115. Gatbonton, Bastión de San Diego. Ibáñez y García, History of the Marianas, 195. Mojares, Resil B., Casa Gorordo in Cebu: Urban Residence in a Philippine Province (Cebu 1983).Google Scholar Sanz, Description of the Mariana Islands, 16. Valle, The Importance of the Mariana Islands, cover. David, Welch, Goodwin, and McNeil, , ‘The Development of Agaña’. Fernando N. Zialcita and Martin I. Tinio Jr., Philippine Ancestral Houses, 1810–1930 (Quezon City 1980).Google Scholar

45 Skowronek, , A New Europe in the New World. Idem, ‘Colonialism and the Quincentennial: Archaeological Perspectives from the Spanish Philippines’ (Berkeley 1992), paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Southwestern Anthropological Association.Google Scholar

46 Carrion, Puerto Rico. Ibáñez y García, History of the Marianas, xvii, 177.

47 Service, Elman R., ‘Indian-European Relations in Colonial Latin America’, American Anthropologist 57/3 part 1 (1955) 411425.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

48 Bevoise, Ken De, Agents of Apocalypse, Epidemic Disease in the Colonial Philippines (Princeton 1995).Google ScholarJames, Saliba, ‘Cholera Epidemic and Evolution of Control Policy: A Look at the Spanish Era in the Philippines’ in: Churchill, Bernardita Reyes ed., Manila: Selected Papers of the Annual Conferences of the Manila Studies Association, 1989–1993 (Manila 1994) 125138.Google Scholar

49 Moses, Spain Overseas, 81. Phelan, The Hispanization of the Philippines, 131–132. Rafael, Contracting Colonialism, 20.

50 Skowronek, Trade Patterns.

51 For example see: Deagan, , Spanish St. Augustine. Idem, Artifacts of the Spanish Colonies of Florida and the Caribbean, 1500–1800 (Washington 1987). Goggin, ‘Spanish Majolica in the New World’. Skowronek, Trade Patterns of 18th Century. Idem, A New Europe in the New World. Idem, ‘Empire and Ceramics’, 109–118.Google Scholar

52 Skowronek, ‘Empire and Ceramics’, 114–116.

53 Joseph and Bryne, ‘Socio-Economics and Trade in Viejo San Juan’, 45–58. Magana, Colonial Archaeology of San Juan.

54 For a description of these ceramic wares see: Deagan, Artifacts of the Spanish Colonies, 28–29. Magana, Colonial Archaeology of San Juan, 95–97.

55 Magana, Colonial Archaeology of San Juan, 62, 78–91, 131.

56 Magana, Colonial Archaeology of San Juan, 61–77.

57 Deagan, Artifacts of the Spanish Colonies, 52, 67, 88, 90, 95. Zierdan, Martha, The Archaeology of a Nineteenth Century Second Spanish Period Homesite in St Augustine, Florida (Tallahassee 1981) 6768.Google Scholar

58 Cheek, Struthers, Jacobs and Alonso, An Archaeological and Architectural Investigation. Shelton and Stickler Robinson, Cultural Resources Survey.

59 Cheek, Struthers, Jacobs and Alonso, An Archaeological and Architectural Investigation, 9, 43, 53–57.

60 Ibid., 63.

61 Skowronek, ‘Colonialism and the Quincentennial’.

62 Alip, Ten Centuries of Philippine-Chinese Relations, 53. Cushner, Spain in the Philippines, 197. Lyon, ‘Track of the Manila Galleons’, 36.

63 Guerrero, Milagros C. and Quirino, Carlos, ‘Old Chinatown: 1570–1770’ in: Roces, Alfredo R. ed., Filipino Heritage: The Making of a Nation (Manila 1977) 1009. Tubangui, Bauzon, Foronda, and Ausejo, The Filipino Nation, 51.Google Scholar

64 Skowronek, Trade Patterns of 18th Century.

65 Deagan, Spanish St Augustine.

66 Guthe, Carl E., ‘The University of Michigan Philippine Expedition’, American Anthropologist 29 (1927) 6976.CrossRefGoogle Scholar ‘Distribution of Sites Visited by the University of Michigan: Philippine Expedition, 1922–1925’, Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science Arts and Letters X (1929) 7989. Skowronek, Colonialism and the Quincentennial.Google Scholar

67 See the following reports: Bautista, Angel P. and Torre, Amalia de la, ‘Archaeological Impact Assessment Project of Three Historic Sites within the Intramuros Walls’ in: Churchill, Bernardita Reyes ed., Manila: Selected Papers of the Annual Conferences of the Manila Studies Association, 1989–1993 (Manila 1994) 3549.Google Scholar Eusebio Z. Dizon, ‘The Archaeological Excavation at the Parian Site in Intramuros, Metro Manila’ in: ibidem, 22–34. Esperanza B. Gatbonton, ‘Identifying Manila's Material Culture’ in: ibidem, 6–15. Valdes, Cynthia O., Saga of the San Diego (Manila 1993).Google Scholar

68 Welch, David, Goodwin and McNeil, ‘The Development of Agaña, 8.

69 Harrisson, Barbara, Swatow in het Princessehof (Leeuwarden 1979) 27.Google Scholar

70 Skowronek, ‘Colonialism and the Quincentennial’. Welch, David, Goodwin and McNeil, ‘The Development of Agaña’.

71 Arenas, Report on the Commerce and Shipping, 45–73.

72 Cheek, Charles, Struthers, Jacobs and Alonso, ‘An Archaeological and Architectural Investigation’, 65.