1 Legarda, Benito F. Jr, ‘Foreign Trade, Economic Change and Entrepreneurship in the 19th Century Philippines’ (PhD dissertation, Harvard University, 1955).Google Scholar This article is a result of the research for an MA dissertation at the School of Oriental and African Studies. Among the many people who helped me in one way or the other with this piece of work, I would like to single out W.G. Clarence-Smith for useful guidance and A.B. Christa Schwarz for her always meticulous proofreading. The abbreviations PRO and PA AA are for the Public Record Office (Kew Gardens) and the Politisches Archiv of the Auswärtiges Amt in Bonn.

2 Fast, Jonathan and Richardson, Jim, Roots of Dependency: Political and Economic Revolution in 19th Century Philippines (Quezon City 1979) 52.Google Scholar For the role of Spanish merchants up to the early nineteenth century, see Schurz, William Lyttle, The Manila Galleon (New York 1939)Google Scholar and Cheong, Wang Eang, ‘The Decline of Manila as the Spanish Entrepôt in the Far East, 1785–1826: Its Impact on the Pattern of Southeast Asian Trade’, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 2/2 (1971) 142–158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

3 Fast and Richardson, Roots of Dependency, 50.

4 Gastrell, William S.H., Our Trade in the World in Relation to Foreign Competition, 1885 to 1895 (London 1897) 70Google Scholar; United States of America, United States Bureau of the Census, Census of the Philippine Islands IV: Agriculture, Social and Industrial Statistics (Washington 1905) 568–571.Google Scholar

5 Tarling, Nicholas, ‘Consul Farren and the Philippines’, Journal of the Malaysian Branch Royal Asiatic Society 38/2 (1965) 258–273Google Scholar; Aguilar, Filomeno V. Jr, ‘Beyond Inevitability: The Opening of Philippine Provincial Ports in 1855’, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 25/1 (1994) 76–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

6 Fast and Richardson, Roots of Dependency, 50.

7 The German economic position in the Philippines will be discussed in § 2 of this article: ‘The Last Two Decades: Germany Gains Ground’.

8 Kaikkonen, Olli, Deulschland und die Expansionspolitik der USA in den 90er Jahren des 19. Jahrhunderts (Jyväskylä 1980) 93–110Google Scholar; Bacareza, Hermogenes E., A History of Philippine-German Relations (Quezon City 1980) 85–96Google Scholar; Neale, R.G., Britain and American Imperialism: 1898–1900 (St Lucia 1965) 94–124.Google Scholar A selection of German documents on this question has been published in chapter XCVIII of Lepsius, Johannes, Bartholdy, Albrecht Mendelssohn and Thimme, Friedrich eds, Die Große Politik der Europäischen Kabinette 1871–1914: Sammlung der diplomatischen Akten des Auswärtigen Amtes 15 (Berlin 1924) 31–112.Google Scholar

9 Wehler, Hans-Ulrich, Bismarck und der Imperialismus (Cologne and Berlin 1969) 230–257.Google Scholar

10 For a general discussion of the Philippine economy in the nineteenth century: Larkin, John, ‘Philippine History Reconsidered: A Socioeconomic Perspective’, American Historical Review 87/3 (1982) 612–624CrossRefGoogle Scholar; McCoy, Alfred W. and de Jesus, Edilberto C. eds, Philippine Social History: Global Trade and Local Transformations (Honolulu 1981).Google Scholar

11 France, Rapports Commerciaux, No. 156; de Bérard, G., Situation économique et commerciale des Iles Philippines en 1892, annexe au Moniteur officiel du Commerce (Paris, 11 January 1894) 18. The translation from the French original is supplied by me. The same applies for all translations in this article, unless indicated otherwise.Google Scholar

12 Great Britain, Foreign Office, Annual Series, No. 846, Report for the Year 1890 for the Trade, & c., of the Philippine Islands, in Parliamentary Papers 1890–1891 LXXXVII, p. 824.

13 Owen, Norman G., Prosperity Without Progress: Manila Hemp and Material Life in the Colonial Philippines (Los Angeles and London 1984) 62.Google Scholar

14 Wickberg, Edgar, The Chinese in Philippine Life: 1850–1898 (New Haven and London 1965) 47. For merchant banking Legarda, ‘Foreign Trade, Economic Change and Entrepreneurship’, 432–449.Google Scholar

15 Tarling, Nicholas, ‘Some Aspects of British Trade in the Philippines in the Nineteenth Century”, Journal of History 11 (1963) 289–306 for rice and 306–315 for sugar.Google Scholar

16 Owen, Prosperity Without Progress, 47 and 65f.

17 Tarling, ‘Some Aspects’, 317ff.; United States, Report of the Philippine Commission to the President IV (Washington 1902) 70.Google Scholar

18 Campbell, Angus L., The Manila Club: A Social History of the British in Manila (Manila 1993).Google Scholar

19 Valdepenas, Vicente B. and Bautista, Gemelino M., The Emergence of the Philippine Economy (Manila 1977) 91.Google Scholar

20 United States of America, Frankenthal, Adolph F., ‘Business Points for the Philippines’, in Advance Sheets of Consular Reports (Washington, 11 October 1898) 3.Google Scholar

21 Owen, Prosperity Without Progress, 65.

22 For Chinese mestizos, Wickberg, Edgar, ‘The Chinese Mestizo in Philippine History’, Journal of Southeast Asian History 5 (1964) 62–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

23 Owen, Prosperity without Progress, 62 for insurances and 98 for the role of British merchant houses in the shipping of abaca.

24 For the rise of Chinese retailers and their competition with mestizo merchants, Wickberg, The Chinese in Philippine Life, 149ff.

25 For example Great Britain, Foreign Office, 1888, Annual Series, No. 295, Report for the Year 1887 on the Trade of Manila (Philippine Islands), in Parliamentary Papers 1888 CIII, 65f.

26 See part 3 (The Rise of Spanish Neo-Mercantilism) of this chapter.

27 Foreman, John, The Philippine Islands (Third edition, Shanghai, Hongkong, Singapore and Yokohama, 1906) 262.Google Scholar

28 Zaide, Gregorio F., ‘Contributions of Aliens to the Philippine Economy’ in: Liao, Schubert S.C. ed., Chinese Participation in Philippine Culture and Economy (Manila 1964) 167.Google Scholar For the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, Davenport-Hines, R.P.T. and Jones, Geoffrey eds, British Business in Asia since 1860 (Cambridge 1989) 14f.Google Scholar

29 Zaide, ‘Contributions of Aliens to the Philippine Economy’, 167.

30 United States, Frankenthal, ‘Business Points for the Philippines’, 3.

31 Recur, Carlos, Filipinas: Estudios administrates y comerciales (Madrid 1879) 110, as quoted in Wickberg, Tlie Chinese in Philippine Life, 72.Google Scholar

32 Legarda, ‘Foreign Trade, Economic Change and Entrepeneurship’, 247.

33 Wickberg is an exception to the rule, as he identifies the rise of Chinese foreign traders, Chinese shipping and Chinese insurances in the 1890s. Wickberg, The Chinese in Philippine. Life, 87f.

34 United States, Census, 568; United States, Report, 62.

35 Wehler, Bismarck und der Imperialismus, 53–111.

36 Ibid., 235–238. See also Meyer, Güniher, ‘German Interests and Policy in the Netherlands East Indies and Malaya, 1870–1914’ in: Moses, John A. and Kennedy, Paul M. eds, Germany in the Pacific and Far East, 1870–1914 (St Lucia 1977) 42.Google Scholar

37 ‘Deutschlands Handel mit den Philippinen’, Deutsche Volkswirtschaftliche Correspondenz 91 (17 November 1896)Google Scholar; ‘Beer in the Philippine Islands’, Board of Trade Journal 10/54 (January 1891) 57Google Scholar; and Great Britain, Foreign Office, Annual Series, 1898, No. 2133, Report for the Year 1898 on the Trade and Commerce of the Philippine Islands, in Parliamentary Papers 1898 XCVII, 744f.

38 United States, Census, 568.

39 Great Britain, Foreign Office, Annual Series, No. 846, Report for the Year 1890, 4.

40 France, Rapports Commerciaux, 29.

41 Helfferich, Emil, Zur Geschichte der Firmen Behn, Meyer & Co. gegründet in Singapore am 1. November 1840 und Arnold Otto Meyer gegründet in Hamburg am 1. Juni 1857 1 (Hamburg 1967) 79.Google Scholar

42 Bacareza, A History of Philippine-German Relations, 53.

43 Bundesarchiv R 901 13058, II 15046: Aktiengesellschaft für Seil-Industrie to Auswärtiges Amt, Neckarau-Mannheim, 14 June 1898.

44 Kaikkonen, Deutschland und die Expansionspolitik der USA, 53–56.

45 Maria Luisa T. Camagay, ‘Le développement urbain de Manille au XIXème siècle’ (PhD dissertation, EHESS, Paris – no date indicated) 142.

46 Kölnisclie Zeitung, 13 September 1896.

47 PA AA R 19463, A 12436: Wollwitz to Bismarck, Madrid. 6 September 1889; Ibid., A 9560: Sprenger to Hohenlohe, San Sebastián, 10 September 1896.

48 PA AA R 19465, A 2700: Knapp to Hohenlohe, Hong Kong, 1 February 1897. See also Salazar, Zeus A., ‘A Filipino Petition to the Kaiser for German Intervention in Favor of the Philippine Revolution’ in: Salazar, Zeus A. ed., The Ethnic Dimension: Papers on Philippine Culture, History and Psychology (Cologne 1983) 131–154.Google Scholar

49 PA AA R 19473: A 4539 I: Diederichs to the commanding admiral in Berlin, Manila, 2 August 1898.

50 United States, Frankenthal, 4.

51 Bundesarchiv R 901 13058, II 14244: Radowitz to Hohenlohe, Madrid, 25 May 1898; Ibid., II 20233: Lindau to Hohenlohe, Barcelona, 8July 1898.

52 Stoecker, Helmuth ed., German Imperialism in Africa: From the Beginnings until the Second World War (London and New Jersey 1977) 13.Google Scholar

53 PA AA R 19462, A 1956: Kampermann to Bismarck, Manila, 9 January 1886; Bundesarchiv R 901 14054, II 4055: Möllendorf to Bismarck, Manila, 16 January 1888.

54 for instance Great Britain, Foreign Office, 1889, Annual Series, No. 494, Report for the Year 1888 on the Trade of the Philippine Islands, in Parliamentary Papers 1889 LXXX, 588 and 591.

55 Bacareza, A History of Philippine-German Relations, 42; United States, Frankenthal, 4.

56 PRO FO 72/1890: Gollan to Salisbury, Commercial No. 4, 1 April 1891. Gollan sent, along with his dispatch, a cutting from the Diario de Manila of 3 March 1891, wherein the telegram of José Gasso Marti, President of the Society for the Encouragement of National Industry in Barcelona is printed. The translation is given by Gollan.

57 Gaceta de Madrid, 16 February 1883.

58 Aktennotiz Mühlberg, Berlin, 25 February 1889, in Bundesarchiv R 901 13055, pp. 36–40.

59 Clarence-Smith, W.G., ‘The Economic Dynamics of Spanish Colonialism in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries’, Itinerario 15/1 (1991) 78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar See also Harrison, Joseph, An Economic History of Modern Spain (Manchester 1978) 69f.Google Scholar

60 Lécuyer, M.C. and Serrano, C., La Guerre d'Afrique et ses Répercussions en Espagne, 1859–1904 (Paris 1976) 272.Google Scholar

61 Legarda, ‘Foreign Trade, Economic Change and Entrepreneurship’, 347. The tariff is printed in the Gaceta de Manila of 10/12 December 1885.

62 Fast and Richardson, Roots of Dependency, 52.

63 Berliner Politische Nachrichten 3 (5 January 1886).

64 Gaceta de Madrid, 20 March 1887.

65 Bundesarchiv R 901 13054, II 4055: Möllendorf to Bismarck, Manila, 16 January 1888.

66 Gaceta de Manila, 9 October 1889.

67 The figures are taken from PRO 72/1896: Trade and Treaties Committee, Fifth Report to the Lords of Privy Council for Trade (June 1891).

68 Gastrell, Our Trade in the World in Relation to Foreign Competition, 183f.; Fuchs, Carl Johannes, Die Handelspolitik Englands und seiner Kolonien in den letzten Jahrzehnten (Leipzig 1893) 63f.Google Scholar See also Vives, Jaime Vicens, An Economic History of Spain (Princeton 1969) 711 f.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

69 Harrison, An Economic History, 69f. and Vicens Vives, An Economic History of Spain, 702.

70 Voto Particular del excmo. senor D. Segismundo Moret y Prendergast al dictamen de la comision arancelaria (Madrid 1890) and the translation and comments supplied in PRO 72/1833: Ford to Salisbury, Commercial No. 26, Madrid, 5 February 1891.Google Scholar

71 Tom E. Terrill, The Tariff, Politics, and American Foreign Policy 1874–1901 (Westport, Connecticut and London) 167–175.

72 PRO 72/1885: Ford to Salisbury, Commercial No. 111, Madrid, 9 July 1891.

73 Harrison, An Economic History, 70.

74 Gastrell, Our Trade in the World in Relation to Foreign Competition, 70.

75 For the tariff rates, Board of Trade Journal 10/55 (February 1891) 143–146.Google Scholar

76 Board of Trade Journal 19/111 (October 1895) 415Google Scholar and Board of Trade Journal 21/124 (November 1896) 569f.Google Scholar

77 Bundesarchiv R 901 13058, II 21836: Spitz to Hohenlohe, Manila, 14 August 1897; PRO FO 72/2045: Ramsden to Salisbury, Consular No. 23, Manila, 13 August 1897.

78 Warren, James Francis, The Sulu Zone, 1768–1898: The Dynamics of External Trade, Slavery, and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State (Singapore 1981) xix.Google Scholar

79 Wright, L.R., ‘The Anglo-Spanish-German Treaty of 1885: A Step in the Development of British Hegemony in North Borneo’, The Australian Journal of Politics and History 18/1 (1972) 67ff.Google Scholar

80 Wright, ‘The Anglo-Spanish-German Treaty of 1885’, 75.

81 Tarling, Nicholas, Sulu and Sabah: A Study of British Policy towards the Philippines and North Borneo from the Late Eighteenth Century (Kuala Lumpur 1978) 252.Google Scholar

82 For a history of the tobacco monopoly, de Jesus, Edilberto C., The Tobacco Monopoly in the Philippines: Bureaucratic Enterprise and Social Change, 1766–1880 (Quezon City 1980).Google Scholar

83 Cushner, Nicholas, Spain in the Philippines (Quezon City 1971) 204. See also De Jesus, The Tobacco Monopoly, 203.Google Scholar

84 De Jesus, The Tobacco Monopoly, 189; PRO FO 72/1656, p. 232: Wilkinson to Granville, Commercial No. 2, Manila, 13 January 1883.

85 PRO FO 72/1656, p. 236r: Wilkinson to Granville, Commercial No. 5, Manila, 24 March 1883.

86 Ibid.

87 Sawyer, Frederic H., The Inhabitants of the Philippines (London 1900) 132Google Scholar and Nardin, Denis, France and the Philippines: From the Beginning to the End of the Spanish Regime (Manila 1989) 75Google Scholar. I was not able to obtain Giralt, E., La Campañía General de Tabacos de Filipinas, 1881–1981 (Barcelona 1981).Google Scholar

88 Bundesarchiv R 901 13053, pp. 78–85: II 32480, Kempermann to Bismarck, Manila, 23 July 1883.

89 De Jesus, The Tobacco Monopoly, 197.

90 Bundesarchiv R 901 13053, pp. 101–9: II 35913, Baer to Bismarck, Paris, 15 October 1883.

91 Ibid.

92 Bundesarchiv R 901 13053, pp. 153ff.: II 8625, Solms to Bismarck, Madrid, 2 March 1884.

93 Ibid., p. 165f.: 15899, Kusserow to Solms, Berlin, 1 June 1884. See also Bundesarchiv R 901 13055, pp. 36–40: Aktennotiz Mühlberg, Berlin, 25 February 1889, Betrifft: das spanische Verbot von Grundeigenthum auf den Philippinen durch Ausländische Gesellschaften.

94 Bundesarchiv R 901 13054, pp. 5ff.: II 40997, Baer to Bismarck, Paris, 1 November 1884.

95 Ibid., p. 14: II 4342, Solms to Bismarck, Madrid, 30 January 1885.

96 Ibid., p. 45a: 10195, von Seckendorf to Kempermann, Berlin, 10 April 1885.

97 Ibid., II 6621, Kempermann to Bismarck, 23 June 1885.

98 The dispatch Solms left unanswered can be found in Bundesarchiv R 901, pp. 53f.: 24234, Auswärtiges Amt to Solms, 8 August 1885.

99 Bundesarchiv R 901, pp. 75–105: II 9284, Möllendorf to Bismarck, Manila, 25 March 1887.

100 PA AA 19475, A 8817, Kapitänleutnant Hoven to the Adimirality, 16 July 1887.

101 Bundesarchiv R 13054, pp. 106ff.: 19726, Bismarck-Schönhausen to Stumm, Berlin, l June 1887.

102 Bundesarchiv R 901 13055, Aktennotiz Mühlberg. For a discussion of Germany, Spain, and the Carolines, Wehler, Bismarck und der Imperialismus, 400–407; Christmann, Helmut, Hempenstall, Peter and Ballendorf, Dirk Anthony, Die Karolinen-Inseln in deutsclier Zeit: Eine kolonialgeschichtliche Fallstudie (Münster and Hamburg 1991) 4f.Google Scholar

103 Bundesarchiv R 901 13054, pp. 115f.: II 12611, Stumm to Bismarck, Madrid, 12 June 1887; Ibid., 132: II 14074: Stumm to Bismarck, Madrid, 1 July 1887.

104 Gaceta de Madrid, 26 January 1889 and Bundesarchiv R 901 13055: II 2663/89, Stumm to Bismarck, 5 February 1889.

105 Bundesarchiv R 901 13055: II 4540/89: Mühlberg to Möllendorf, Berlin, 2 March 1889.

106 Bundesarchiv R 901 13056: II 22300, Möllendorf to Caprivi, Manila, 28 July 1892.

107 Platt, D.C.M., Finance, Trade, and Politics in British Foreign Policy (Oxford 1971) 98. For an account of how the Auswärtiges Amt itself perceived its role in the promotion of German foreign trade, Germany, Auswärtiges Amt, ‘Materialien zu einer Darstellung der Zusammensetzung und der Wirksamkeit der früheren 2. (handelspolitischen) Abteilung des Auswärtigen Amtes von ihrer Gründung am 1. April 1885 bis zu ihrer im Frühjahr 1920 erfolgten Auflösung’ (no place, no date).Google Scholar

108 Bundesarchiv R 901 13055: Aktennotiz Mühlberg.

109 Appendix I, Report of the Select Committee on Consular Establishment, in Parliamentary Papers 1835, Vo. VI, p. 499, as quoted in Platt, Finance, Trade, and Politics in British Foreign Policy, 382.

110 PRO FO 72/1890: Gollan to Salisbury, Commercial No. 4, 1 April 1891. Gollan's survey as such serves as an interesting source for the history of British merchant houses in the Philippines, as eleven firms responded to the British consul's inquiry. The responses are to be found in the same volume of the Foreign Office records, and the respective merchant houses are: Johnston, Gore, Booth & Co., MacGavin & Grindrod, Findlay, Richardson & Co., A.S. Watson & Co., Andrews & Co., Forbes Munn & Co., MacLeod & Co., Smith Bell &: Co., Barlow & Co., Tillson, Herrmann & Co. and Ker &: Co.

111 Ibid.

112 PRO FO 72/1884: Ford to Salisbury, Commercial No. 81, Madrid, 3 June 1891.

113 Ibid.

114 PRO FO 72/1913: Turner to Salisbury, Commercial No. 2, Manila, 2 March 1892; Bundesarchiv R 901 13056: Möllendorf to Caprivi, Manila, 2 March 1892.

115 PRO FO 72/1905: Wolff to Salisbury, Commercial No. 83, Madrid, 23 April 1892, and Wolff to Tetuan, Madrid, 23 April 1892. See also PRO FO 72/1913: Foreign Office to Innes (acting consul in Manila), London, 2 September 1892; Bundesarchiv R 901 13056: II 20918, Gunther to Caprivi, Madrid, 25 August 1892.

116 France, Rapports Commerciaux, No. 74, de Bérard, G., Situation économique, industrielle et commerciale des Philippines en 1891–1892 (Paris 1892) 3.Google Scholar

117 Bundesarchiv R 901 13056: II 7368, Möllendorf to Caprivi, 20 February 1893 and II 13122, Radowitz to Caprivi, Madrid, 31 May 1893.

118 PRO FO 72/1936: Stigand to Roseberry, Commercial No. 1, Manila, 21 April 1893. See also Bundesarchiv R 901 13056: II 14508, Radowitz to Caprivi, Madrid, 17 June 1893.

119 PRO FO 72/1890: Forbes, Munn & Co. to Gollan, Manila, 11 March 1891.

120 PRO FO 72/1890: Andrews & Co. to Gollan, Manila, 7 March 1891.

121 Ibid.

122 PRO FO 72/1890: Gollan to Salisbury, Commercial No. 4, Manila, 1 April 1891.

123 PRO FO 72/1884: Ford to Salisbury, Commercial No. 81, Madrid, 3 June 1891.

124 PRO FO 881/6254: No. 36, Dundee Chamber of Commerce to Trade and Treaties Committee, Dundee, 8 March 1892.

125 For the long-term effect of the tariff on Manchester textiles, see Redford, Arthur, Manchester Merchants and Foreign Trade II: 1850–1939 (Manchester 1956) 84.Google Scholar

126 PRO FO 72/1897: in this volume, a copy of the following document, which is not accessible in the Public Record Office, is bound: FO 881/6132, Confidential Print: Interviews between Sir Clare Ford and Representatives of Chambers of Commerce, and Persons engaged in Trade with Spain and the Spanish Colonies, 8 October 1891. The reference to the Manchester Chamber of Commerce can be found on page 3.

127 For the function and the responsibilities of the Board of Trade, Platt, Finance, Trade, and Politics in British Foreign Policy, 371–381.

128 PRO FO 72/1896: Trade and Treaties Committee, Fifth Report to the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council for Trade (London, June 1891). The ‘more moderate Tariff of 1888’ the Board of trade referred to must have been the tariff that preceded the 1889 surtax – thus the 1871 tariff.Google Scholar

129 Ibid.

130 PRO 72/1885: Ford to Salisbury, Commercial No. 111, Madrid, 9 July 1891.

131 Redford, Manchester Merchants and Foreign Trade II, 84.

132 Gastrell, Our Trade in the World in Relation to Foreign Competition, 185 and Hildebrand, Klaus, ‘Europäisches Zentrum, Überseeische Peripherie und Neue Welt: Über den Wandel des Staatensystems zwischen dem Berliner Kongress (1878) und dem Pariser Frieden (1919/1920)’, Historische Zeitschrift 249/1 (1989) 83f.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

133 Platt, Finance, Trade, and Politics in British Foreign Policy, 85.

134 Fuchs, Die Handelspolitik Englands und seiner Kolonien, 63f.

135 FO 881/6289, No. 171: Board of Trade to Foreign Office, 15 March 1892 (Trade and Treaties Committee, Eighth Report to the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council for Trade); Ibid., No. 324: Board of Trade to Foreign Office, Confidential, 2 July 1892.

136 Fuchs, Die Handelspolitik Englands und seiner Kolonien, 64; PRO FO 881/6289, No. 334: Wolff to Salisbury, Commercial No. 180, Madrid, 11 July 1892.

137 PRO FO 881/6627, No. 117: Kimberley to Wolff, Commercial No. 37, 4 May 1894.

138 Platt, Finance, Trade, and Politics in British Foreign Policy, 94.

139 Great Britain, Commercial Agreement between Great Britain and Spain, in Parliamentary Papers 1893/1894 CIX, 815.

140 FO 881/6627: Wolff to Kimberley, most confidential, Madrid, 15 May 1894.

141 Weitowitz, Rolf, Deutsche Politik und Handelspolitik unter Reichskanzler Leo von Caprivi, 1890–1894 (Düsseldorf 1978). Unfortunately, Weitowitz does not cover Cerman relations to Spain at all.Google Scholar

142 Bundesarchiv R 901 13055: II 9003, Möllendorf to Caprivi, Manila, 21 March 1891.

143 PRO FO 72/1890: Ker & Co. to Gollan, Manila, 31 March 1891.

144 Table I.

145 Gerloff, Wilhelm, Die Finanz- und Zollpolitik des Deutschen Reiches nebst ihren Beziehungen zu Landes- und Gemeindefinanzen von der Gründung des Norddeulschen Bundes bis zur Gegenwart (Jena 1913) 298ff.Google Scholar

146 Bundesarchiv 13058, 38999: Mühlberg to Marx, Berlin, 18 July 1896.

147 Bundesarchiv 13057, II 16916: Gebrüder Haas to Auswärtiges Arm, Weissenburg a. Sand, 19 July 1894; Ibid., Heinszen to Auswärtiges Arm, Hamburg, 28 July 1894; Ibid., Königliches Ministerium für Handel und Gewerbe to Auswärtiges Arm, Berlin, 2 August 1894 (containing an enquiry by the Barmen Chamber of Commerce).

148 Bundesarchiv R 901, II. 26261: Ministerium für Handel und Gewerbe to Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst, Berlin, 13 November 1894; Ibid., 57202: Mühlberg to Berlepsch, Berlin, 4 November 1894.

149 PRO FO 72/1883: Ford to Salisbury, Commercial No. 26, Madrid, 5 February 1891.

150 Gastrell, Our Trade in the World in Relation to Foreign Competition, 187.

151 PA AA R 19464, 11175: Radowitz to Hohenlohe, Madrid, 26 October 1896.

152 SarDesai, D.R., British Trade and Expansion in Southeast Asia: 1830–1914 (New Delhi 1977) 18Google Scholar; Darby, Phillip, Three Faces of Imperialism: British and American Approaches to Asia and Africa (New Haven and London 1987) 63f.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

153 Gastrell, Our Trade in the World in Relation to Foreign Competition, 156.

154 Nadal, Jordi, El fracaso de la Revolution industrial en Espana, 1814–1913 (Barcelona 1975) 92.Google Scholar

155 Gastrell, Our Trade in the World in Relation to Foreign Competition, 187.

156 Wehler, Bismarck und der Imperialismus, 405.

157 Great Britain, Foreign Office, 1897, Annual Series, No. 1932, Report for the Year 1896 on the Trade of the Philippines Islands, in Parliamentary Papers 1897 XCII, 600.

158 PRO FO/2084: Memorial of British Merchants engaged in Trade with the Philippine Islands to Salisbury, forwarded to Curzon by London Chamber of Commerce on 3 May 1898.