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Ambivalent Relationships: The Portuguese State and the Indian Nationals in Mozambique in the Aftermath of the Goa Crisis, 1961–1971
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 March 2020
Abstract
Grounded in written historical records and oral sources, this exploratory article addresses the Portuguese policy that targeted Indian nationals settled in Mozambique in the aftermath of the liberation/occupation of Portuguese India in December 1961. It equally tackles the views, concerns, and responses developed by Indian nationals to cope with their confinement in internment camps, frozen assets, seizures and liquidation, and deportation. The analysis evinces the inbuilt ambivalence in the way Portuguese colonial authorities constructed the internment of Indian nationals as humanitarian and protective measures, while displaying their dispossession and repatriation as harsh retaliatory political measures, at odds with the purported political and legal principles of colonial governance based on Portuguese Luso-tropical exceptionalism. The differentiated impact of such political measures, far from being univocal and uncompromising, is discussed as marred by innumerable contradictions resulting from the Portuguese economic vulnerability and dependence on Indian subaltern elites in Mozambique. Furthermore, the article presents a particular analytical sensitivity to the ambivalence surrounding the modes in which men and women of Indian origin related to Portuguese colonial power and responded to its governance.
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- Copyright © The Author(s) 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Research Institute for History, Leiden University
Footnotes
*
Susana Trovão is a researcher at CRIA—Centro em Rede de Investigação em Antropologia, and a full professor at the Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas of the Universidade Nova de Lisboa. Sandra Araújo is a research associate at ICS, UL – Instituto de Ciências Sociais, Universidade de Lisboa. The authors are most thankful to the anonymous referees and Andreas Stucki for their valuable comments and suggestions. This article was supported by the FCT (Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology) through UID/ANT/04038/2019—CRIA (Centre for Research in Anthropology).
References
Bibliography
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Navinchand Machand, interviewed in Maputo, 2007.Google Scholar
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Puriben Patel, interviewed in Wembley, 2006.Google Scholar
Ranchordas Haridas, interviewed in Quelimane, 2007.Google Scholar
Tarun Laxmidas, interviewed in Lisbon and Maputo, 2004.Google Scholar
Arquivo Nacional Torre do Tombo, Lisbon, Portugal (ANTT):Google Scholar
- Polícia Internacional e de Defesa do Estado/Direcção-Geral de Segurança (PIDE/DGS), Serviços Centrais, 2. ª Divisão: Serviços de Informação, Centro de Informações (2)Google Scholar
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Gangaben Ramji, interviewed in Leicester, 2011.Google Scholar
Gopaldas Mathuradas, interviewed in Maputo, 2007.Google Scholar
Govindji Purshutan, interviewed in Lisbon, 2011.Google Scholar
Haridas Bimji, interviewed in Leicester, 2012.Google Scholar
Himatlal Purushottan Modi, interviewed in Maputo, 2007.Google Scholar
Lacxmi Premgi Bika, interviewed in Alperton, 2012.Google Scholar
Lacxmi Popatbhai Radia, interviewed in Leicester, 2012.Google Scholar
Lalichandra, interviewed in Maputo, 2007.Google Scholar
Mahendra, interviewed in Maputo, 2007, and Lisbon, 2013.Google Scholar
Mahomed Yossuf, interviewed in Lisbon, 2009.Google Scholar
Manilal Kanji, interviewed in Lisbon and Southall, 2010.Google Scholar
Manorma Samgi, interviewed in Lisbon, 2012.Google Scholar
Navinchand Machand, interviewed in Maputo, 2007.Google Scholar
Popatal Karsane, interviewed in Lisbon, 2009.Google Scholar
Pradip Ratilal, interviewed in Maputo, 2007.Google Scholar
Puriben Patel, interviewed in Wembley, 2006.Google Scholar
Ranchordas Haridas, interviewed in Quelimane, 2007.Google Scholar
Tarun Laxmidas, interviewed in Lisbon and Maputo, 2004.Google Scholar
Arquivo Nacional Torre do Tombo, Lisbon, Portugal (ANTT):Google Scholar
- Polícia Internacional e de Defesa do Estado/Direcção-Geral de Segurança (PIDE/DGS), Serviços Centrais, 2. ª Divisão: Serviços de Informação, Centro de Informações (2)Google Scholar
Boletim Geral do Ultramar 37 (436–437–438), 38 (439-440-442). Lisbon: Agência Geral do Ultramar, 1960–1964.Google Scholar
Boletim Oficial de Moçambique, series 1 and 2. Mozambique: Imprensa Nacional, 1961–1972.Google Scholar
Diário do Governo, series 1. Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional, 1961–1972.Google Scholar
Direcção dos Serviços de Economia e Estatística Geral—Província de Moçambique, Recenseamento Geral da População Civilizada em 1955. Lourenço Marques: Imprensa Nacional, 1958.Google Scholar
Nogueira, Franco. Salazar. A Resistência (1958–1964). Vol. 5. Oporto: Livraria Civilização, 1984.Google Scholar
Salazar, António de Oliveira. A Agressão da União Indiana à Soberania Portuguesa. Separata do Semanário “União” de 8 de Dezembro de 1954. Lourenço Marques: Imprensa Nacional, 1954.Google Scholar
Salazar, António de Oliveira. O Pensamento de Salazar. Portugal, Goa e a União Indiana, Março de 1956. Lisbon: Secretariado Nacional da Informação, 1956.Google Scholar
Alexandre, Valentim. Velho Brasil Novas Áfricas. Portugal e o Império (1808–1975). Oporto: Afrontamento, 2000.Google Scholar
Alpers, Edward. “East Central Africa.” In The History of Islam in Africa, edited by Levtzion, N. and Pouwels, R. L., 303–25. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Alpers, Edward. “Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa, c. 1500–1800.” International Journal of African Historical Studies 9:1 (1976): 22–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alpers, Edward. The Indian Ocean in World History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Alves, José. Estado Português da Índia. Eventos da Década de Cinquenta Anterior à Invasão do Estado pelas Forças Armadas da União Indiana em 18 de Dezembro de 1961—Rememoração Pessoal. Lisbon, s.e., 2007.Google Scholar
Araújo, Caio. Diplomacy of Blood and Fire: Portuguese Decolonization and the Race Question, ca. 1945–1968. PhD diss., Department of International History and Politics, Graduate Institute for International and Development Studies, Geneva, University of Geneva, 2018.Google Scholar
Ball, Molly. “‘Portuguese’ Diasporas: A Survey of the Scholarly Literature.” In Imperial Migrations: Colonial Communities and Diaspora in the Portuguese World, edited by Morier-Genoud, Eric and Cahen, Michel, 31–71. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.Google Scholar
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Bastos, Cristiana. “Subaltern Elites and Beyond: Why Goa Matters for Theory.” In Metahistória: história questionando história, homenagem ao prof. doutor Teotónio R. de Souza, edited by Borges, Charles and Pearson, Michael, 129–41. Lisbon: Nova Vega, 2007.Google Scholar
Bastos, Susana. “Ambivalence and Phantasm in the Portuguese Colonial Discursive Production on Indians (Mozambique).” Lusotopie 15:1 (2008): 77–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bastos, Susana. “Hierarchical Alterity Is a Mere Illusion: Some Reflections on the Creative Power of Women's Expressive Traditions in Hindu Diaspora.” Lusotopie 12:1–2 (2005): 109–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bastos, Susana. “Indian Transnationalisms in Colonial and Postcolonial Mozambique.” Stichproben: Wiener Zeitschrift für kritische Afrikastudien 8:5 (2005): 277–306.Google Scholar
Bégue, Sandrine. La fin de Goa et de 1’ Estado da Índia: Décolonisation et Guerre Froide dans le Sous-Continent Indien: (1945–1962). 2 vols. Lisbon: Ministério dos Negócios Estrangeiros, 2007.Google Scholar
Bishara, Fahad. The Sea of Debt: Law and Economic Life in the Western Indian Ocean 1789–1950. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonate, Liazzat. “The Advent and Schisms of Sufi Orders in Mozambique, 1896–1964.” Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 26:4 (2015): 483–501.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brettel, Caroline. “Portugal's First Post-Colonials: Citizenship, Identity, and the Repatriation of Goans.” Portuguese Studies Review 14:2 (2006): 143–70.Google Scholar
Castelo, Cláudia, ‘O Modo Português de Estar no Mundo’: O Luso-tropicalismo e a Ideologia Colonial Portuguesa (1933–1961). Oporto: Afrontamento, 1999.Google Scholar
Chrétien, Jean-Pierre. “Les Communautés Indiennes au Burundi sous les Colonisations Allemande et Belge.” Lusotopie 15:1 (2008): 161–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Couto, Fernando. Moçambique 1974. O Fim do Império e o Nascimento da Nação. Alfragide: Caminho, 2011.Google Scholar
Desai, Nishtha. “The Denationalisation of Goans: An Insight into the Construction of Cultural Identity.” Lusotopie 7 (2000): 469–76.Google Scholar
Frenz, Margret. Community, Memory, and Migration in a Globalizing World: The Goan Experience, c. 1890–1980. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frenz, Margret. “Representing the Portuguese Empire: Goan Consuls in British East Africa (c. 1910–1963).” In Imperial Migrations: Colonial Communities and Diaspora in the Portuguese World, edited by Morier-Genoud, Eric and Cahen, Michel, 193–212. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frenz, Margret. “Transimperial Connections: East African Goan Perspectives on ‘Goa 1961.’” Contemporary South Asia 22:3 (2014): 240–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gregory, Robert. South Asians in East Africa: An Economic and Social History, 1890–1980. Boulder: Westview Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Gupta, Pamila. Portuguese Decolonization in the Indian Ocean World: History and Ethnography. London: Bloomsbury, 2018.Google Scholar
Khouri, Nicole and Leite, Joana. “The Ismailis of Mozambique: History of a Twofold Migration (Late 19th century to 1975).” In Imperial Migrations: Colonial Communities and Diaspora in the Portuguese World, edited by Morier-Genoud, Eric and Cahen, Michel, 168–89. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Léonard, Yves. “O Ultramar Português.” In História da Expansão Portuguesa. Último Império e Recentramento (1930–1998), edited by Bethencourt, Francisco and Chaudhuri, Kirti, 31–50. Navarra: Círculo de Leitores, 1999.Google Scholar
Machado, Pedro. “A Forgotten Corner of the Indian Ocean: Gujarati Merchants, Portuguese India and the Mozambique Slave Trade, c. 1730–1830.” In The Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia, edited by Campbell, Gwyn, 16–33. London: Frank Cass, 2004.Google Scholar
Machado, Pedro. Ocean of Trade: South Asian Merchants, Africa and the Indian Ocean, 1700–1850. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mahmood, Saba. Politics of Piety: The Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Markovits, Claude. The Global World of Indian Merchants 1750–1947: Traders of Sind from Bukhara to Panama. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayaram, Shail. “Spirit Possession: Reframing Discourses of the Self and Other.” Purusartha 21 (1999): 101–32.Google Scholar
Metcalf, Thomas. Imperial Connections: India in the Indian Ocean Arena, 1860–1920. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Moço, Diogo. Prisioneiros na Índia 1961–1962. MA thesis in Contemporary History, Faculdade de Letras, Universidade de Lisboa, 2012.Google Scholar
Morais, Carlos. A Queda da Índia Portuguesa. Crónica da Invasão e do Cativeiro. Braga: Editorial Intervenção, 1980.Google Scholar
Moreira, António. “A Crise: do ‘Terramoto Delgado’ ao Golpe de Beja.” In Portugal Contemporâneo, edited by Reis, António, vol. 5, 21–36. Lisbon: Publicações Alfa, 1990.Google Scholar
Morier-Genoud, Eric, and Cahen, Michel. “Introduction: Portugal, Empire, and Migrations—Was There Ever an Autonomous Social Imperial Space?” In Imperial Migrations. Colonial Communities and Diaspora in the Portuguese World, edited by Morier-Genoud and Cahen, 1–28. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.Google Scholar
Oliveira, Pedro. Os Despojos da Aliança. A Grã-Bretanha e a Questão Colonial Portuguesa (1945–1975). Lisbon: Edições Tinta da China, 2007.Google Scholar
Penrard, Jean-Claude. “La Présence Isma'ilienne en Afrique de l'Est.” In Marchand et Hommes d'Affaires Asiatiques dans l'Ocean Indique et la Mer de Chine, 13e–20e siècles, edited by Lombard, Denis and Aubin, Jean, 221–36. Paris: Editions de l'EHESS, 1988.Google Scholar
Pinto, António. “Portugal e a Resistência à Descolonização.” In História da Expansão Portuguesa. Último Império e Recentramento (1930–1998), edited by Bethencourt, Francisco and Chaudhuri, Kirti, 51–64. Navarra: Círculo de Leitores, 1999.Google Scholar
Prinz, Manfred. “Intercultural Links between Goa and Mozambique in their Colonial and Contemporary History.” In Goa and Portugal: Their Cultural Links, edited by Borges, Charles and Feldmann, Helmut, 112–3. New Delhi: Concept Publishing, 1997.Google Scholar
Rita-Ferreira, António. Moçambique e os Naturais da Índia Portuguesa. Separata do II Seminário Internacional de História Indo-Portuguesa—Actas, 617–48. Lisbon: Instituto de Investigação Científica Tropical, 1985.Google Scholar
Rodrigues, Luís. “Os Estados Unidos e a Questão de Goa em 1961.” Ler História 42 (2002): 61–90.Google Scholar
Rosales, Marta. As Coisas da Casa. Objectos domésticos, memórias e narrativas identitárias de famílias transcontinentais. PhD diss., Social and Cultural Anthropology, Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas. Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2007.Google Scholar
Rosas, Fernando. “Goa, ou o Princípio do Fim.” In Goa em 1956. Relatório ao Governo, edited by Ribeiro, Orlando and Daveau, Suzanne, 11–24. Lisbon: Comissão Nacional para as Comemorações dos Descobrimentos Portugueses, 1999.Google Scholar
Roxo, Pedro. Bollywood, Bhajan and Garbha. Práticas Expressivas e Representações Identitárias na Diaspora Hindu Gujarati. PhD diss., Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2016.Google Scholar
Salvadori, Cynthia. Through Open Doors: A View of Asian Cultures in Kenya. Nairobi: Kenway Publications, 1989.Google Scholar
Silveira, Joel. “As Guerras Coloniais e a Queda do Império.” In Portugal Contemporâneo, vol. 5, edited by Reis, António, 71–106. Lisbon: Publicações Alfa, 1990.Google Scholar
Spivak, Gayatri. “Can the Subaltern Speak?” In Colonial Discourse and Post-Colonial Theory: A Reader, edited by Williams, Patrick and Chrisman, Laura, 66–111. New York: Columbia University Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Thomaz, Omar, and Nascimento, Sebastião. “Nem Rodésia, nem Congo: Moçambique e os Dias do Fim das Comunidades de Origem Europeia e Asiática.” In Os outros da Colonização: Ensaios sobre o Colonialismo Tardio em Moçambique, edited by Castelo, Cláudia et al. , 315–39. Lisbon: Imprensa de Ciências Sociais, 2012.Google Scholar
Thompson, Drew. Aim, Focus, Shoot: Photographic Narratives of War, Independence, and Imagination in Mozambique, 1950 to 1993. PhD diss., University of Minnesota, 2013.Google Scholar
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