Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-8bhkd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T12:47:03.289Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A Mulk of One's Own: Languages of Sovereignty, Statehood, and Dominion in the Eighteenth-Century “Empire of Hindustan”

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 January 2021

Nicholas J. Abbott
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Over the course of the eighteenth century, India's Mughal empire (1526–1858) fragmented into a number of regional polities that were, in turn, gradually subsumed under the paramount authority of the British East India Company. This essay describes concomitant developments in the empire's Persianate political language, particularly with regard to ideas of sovereignty, statehood, and dominion. It argues that by the mid-eighteenth century, the Mughal “empire of Hindustan” was increasingly framed as a territorialised governing institution comprising emerging provincial sovereignties rooted in local ruling households. This conceptual dispensation, however, remained ill-defined until the 1760s, when a treaty regime dominated by the Company built upon this language to concretise the empire as a confederacy of independent, sub-imperial states. The essay contends that in the short term, this redefinition bolstered the authority of incipient dynasties in provinces like Awadh, but in the longer term generated conflicts that abetted the expansion of colonial rule and laid conceptual foundations for British paramountcy in India.

Keywords

sovereigntystatehoodMughal empireAwadhBritish East India Companyparamountcy
Type
Article
Information
Itinerario , Volume 44 , Special Issue 3: Beyond the Islamicate Chancery: Archives, Paperwork, and Textual Encounters Across Eurasia , December 2020 , pp. 474 - 501
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Research Institute for History, Leiden University

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

Nicholas J. Abbott is Assistant Professor of History, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia.

References

Bibliography

National Library of Wales, Aberystwyth (NLW)Google Scholar
–John Carnac PapersGoogle Scholar
–Robert Clive Papers, Original Correspondence (CR)Google Scholar
Maharashtra State Archives, Mumbai (MSA)Google Scholar
–Parasnis DaftarGoogle Scholar
National Archives of India, New Delhi (NAI)Google Scholar
–Foreign Department, Secret Proceedings (FDSP)Google Scholar
–Foreign Department, Persian Branch (FDPr)Google Scholar
–Foreign Department, Political Consultations (FDPC)Google Scholar
National Library of India, Calcutta (NLI)Google Scholar
–Sarkar Collection (SC)Google Scholar
Oriental and India Office Collection, British Library, London (OIOC)Google Scholar
–Oriental Mss., Or. and I.O. IslamicGoogle Scholar
–Richard Johnson PapersGoogle Scholar
–Warren Hastings PapersGoogle Scholar
ʿAbd-ul-karim, . Bayān-i wāqiʿ. Ed. Nasim, K. B.. Lahore: University of Panjab, 1970.Google Scholar
Abu'l Fath, . A Medieval Arabic-Persian Dictionary: al-Mulakhkhas fī al-Lughāt. Ed. Dadkhah, G. and Goodarznia, A.. Costa Mesa, Calif.: Mazda, 2014.Google Scholar
Aitchison, C. U., ed. A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sanads, Relating to India and Neighbouring Countries. 13 vols. Calcutta: Superintendent Government Printing, 1909.Google Scholar
Arzu, Siraj-ud-din Khan. Chirāgh-i hidāyat. In Ghiyas-ud-din Muhammad Rampuri. Ghiyās-ul-lughāt maʿa chirāgh-i hidāyat. Lucknow: Nawal Kishore, 1890.Google Scholar
Aurangzeb, ʿAlamgir. Ruqqaʿāt-i ʿālamgīrī. Kanpur: Matbi-i Nizami, 1876.Google Scholar
Bahar, Lala Tekchand. Bahār-i ʿajam: farhang-i lughāt tarkībāt, kināyat wa amsā1 -i fārsī. 3 vols. Ed. Dizfuliyan, K.. Tehran: Talayah, 2001–2/1380.Google Scholar
Bilgrami, Ghulam ʿAli ‘Azad.’ Khizāna-yi ʿāmira. Kanpur: Nawal Kishore, 1871.Google Scholar
Brahman, Chandar Bhan. Chahār chaman-i brahman. Ed. Jafari, M. Y.. New Delhi: Markaz-i Tahqiqat-i Farsi, 2007.Google Scholar
Clive, R. A Letter to the Proprietors of East India Company Stock. London: Printed for J. Nourse, 1764.Google Scholar
Daghestani, ʿAli Quli Khan. Riyāz-ush-shuʿarā. Ed. Qasmi, S. H.. Rampur: Rampur Raza Library, 2001.Google Scholar
Dihlawi, ʿAbd-ul-haqq. Risāla-yi nūrīya-yi sultānīya. Ed. Akhtar, M. S.. Islamabad: Markaz-i Tahqiqat-i Farsi-i Iran wa Pakistan, 1985.Google Scholar
Forrest, G., ed. Selections from the Letters, Despatches, and Other State Papers Preserved in the Foreign Department of the Government of India, 1772–1785. 3 vols. Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing, 1890.Google Scholar
Ghulam ʿAli Khan, . ʿImād-us-saʿādat. Kanpur: Nawal Kishore, 1897.Google Scholar
Imperial Record Department. Calendar of Persian Correspondence, Being Letters, Referring Mainly to Affairs in Bengal, Which Passed between Some of the Company's Servants and Indian Rulers and Notables. 7 vols. Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing, 1911– 40 (CPC).Google Scholar
Khafi Khan, . Muntakhab-ul-lubāb. 2 vols. Ed. Ahmad, K.. Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1869–74.Google Scholar
Long, J. Selections from the Unpublished Records of Government for the Years 1747 to 1768 Inclusive, vol. 1. Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing, 1869.Google Scholar
Mansaram, Lala. Māʾasir-i nizāmī. Ed. Parvin, Z.. Delhi: Kitab Ghar, 2015.Google Scholar
Mukhlis, Anand Ram. Mirʾāt-ul-istilāh. 2 vols. Ed. Shekhar, C. et al. Delhi: Kitab Ghar, 2013.Google Scholar
Mukhlis, Anand Ram. Safarnāma-yi mukhlis. Ed. and Urdu trans. Azhar, S. A.. Rampur: Hindustan Press, 1946.Google Scholar
Najm-i Sani, Muhammad Baqir. Advice on the Art of Governance: An Indo-Islamic Mirror for Princes: Mauʿizah-i Jahāngīrī of Muhammad Bāqir Najm-i Sānī. Ed. and trans. Alvi, S. S.. Albany: SUNY Press, 1989.Google Scholar
Polier, A. Shah Alam II and His Court, a Narrative of the Transactions at the Court of Delhy from the Year 1771 to the Present Time. Ed. Gupta, P. C.. Calcutta: S. C. Sarkar and Sons, 1947.Google Scholar
Tattavi, ʿAbd-ur-rashid. Muntakhab-ul-lughāt. Lucknow: Nawal Kishore, 1877.Google Scholar
Yusuf ʿAli Khan, . Tārīkh-i bangāla-yi mahābat jangī. Ed. Subhan, A.. Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1969.Google Scholar
Abbott, Nicholas J. “Bringing the Sarkār Back In: Translating Governmentality and the State in Early Modern and Early Colonial India.” In State Formations: Global Histories and Cultures of Statehood, ed. Brooke, John, Strauss, Julia, and Adams, Greg, 124–37. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alam, M. The Crisis of Empire in Mughal North India: Awadh and the Punjab, 1707–48. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1986.Google Scholar
Alam, M. The Languages of Political Islam in India: 1200–1800. New Delhi: Permanent Black, 2004.Google Scholar
Alam, M., and Subrahmanyam, S.. “Introduction.” In The Mughal State, 1526–1750, ed. Alam, Muzaffar and Subrahmanyam, Sanjay, 1–71. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Alavi, S. “Introduction.” In The Eighteenth Century in India, ed. Alavi, Seema, 1–56. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Al-Azmeh, A. Muslim Kingship: Power and the Sacred in Muslim, Christian and Pagan Polities. New York: I. B. Tauris, 1997.Google Scholar
Anghie, A. Imperialism, Sovereignty, and the Making of International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Athar Ali, M. The Mughal Nobility under Aurangzeb. Rev. ed. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001 (1966).Google Scholar
Barnett, R. B. North India between Empires: Awadh, the Mughals, and the British, 1720–1801. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980.Google Scholar
Bayly, C. A. Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.Google Scholar
Benton, L. A Search for Sovereignty: Law and Geography in European Empires, 1400–1900. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Benton, L., and Ford, L.. Rage for Order: The British Empire and the Origins of International Law, 1800–1850. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blake, S. P. “The Patrimonial-Bureaucratic Empire of the Mughals.” The Journal of Asian Studies 39:1 (1979): 77–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burak, G. “The Second Formation of Islamic Law: The Post-Mongol Context of the Ottoman Adoption of a School of Law.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 55:3 (2013): 579–602.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chatterjee, K. “History as Self-Representation: The Recasting of a Political Tradition in Late Eighteenth-Century Eastern India.” Modern Asian Studies 32:4 (1998): 913–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crone, P. God's Rule: Government and Islam. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Datta, K. K. Shah Alam II and the East India Company. Calcutta: The World Press, 1965.Google Scholar
Faruqui, M. D. “At Empire's End: Hyderabad and Eighteenth-Century India.” Modern Asian Studies 43:1 (2009): 5–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faruqui, M. D. Princes of the Mughal Empire, 1504–1719. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, M. H. A Clash of Cultures: Awadh, the British, and the Mughals. Riverdale, Md.: The Riverdale Company, 1987.Google Scholar
Fleischer, C. H. Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire: The Historian Mustafa ʿAli (1541–1600). Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Habib, I. The Agrarian System of Mughal India, 1556–1707. Rev. ed. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999 (1963).Google Scholar
Kinra, R. Writing Self, Writing Empire: Chandar Bhan Brahman and the Cultural World of the Indo-Persian State Secretary. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Leonard, S. P. “A Fit of Absence of Mind? Illiberal Imperialism and the Founding of the British Empire, 1757–76.” PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2010.Google Scholar
Marshall, P. J. “Introduction.” In The Eighteenth Century in Indian History: Evolution or Revolution?, ed. Marshall, P. J., 1–52. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Marshall, P. J. The Making and Unmaking of Empires: Britain, India, and America, c. 1750–1783. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Moin, A. A. The Millennial Sovereign: Sacred Kingship and Sainthood in Islam. New York: Columbia University Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Narayana Rao, V., Shulman, D., and Subrahmanyam, S.. Textures of Time: Writing History in South India, 1600–1800. Delhi: Permanent Black, 2006.Google Scholar
Nayeem, M. A. Mughal Administration of Deccan under Nizamul Mulk Asaf Jah (1720–48 AD). Bombay: Jaico Publishing House, 1985.Google Scholar
Ramusack, B. N. The Indian Princes and Their States. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Siddiqi, N. A. Land Revenue Administration under the Mughals, 1700–1750. Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1970.Google Scholar
Spear, P. Twilight of the Mughuls: Studies in Late Mughul Delhi. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951.Google Scholar
Srivastava, A. L. Shuja-ud-Daulah. 2 vols. Calcutta: S. N. Sarkar, 1939–45.Google Scholar
Stern, P. J. The Company-State: Corporate Sovereignty and the Early Modern Foundations of the British Empire in India. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Subrahmanyam, S. “The Mughal State—Structure or Process? Reflections on Recent Western Historiography.” Indian Economic & Social History Review 29:3 (1992): 291–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Travers, R. “A British Empire by Treaty in Eighteenth-Century India.” In Empire by Treaty: Negotiating European Expansion, 1600–1900, ed. Belmessous, Salia, 132–60. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Travers, R. Ideology and Empire in Eighteenth-Century India: The British in Bengal. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Yılmaz, H. Caliphate Redefined: The Mystical Turn in Ottoman Political Thought. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2018.Google Scholar
National Library of Wales, Aberystwyth (NLW)Google Scholar
–John Carnac PapersGoogle Scholar
–Robert Clive Papers, Original Correspondence (CR)Google Scholar
Maharashtra State Archives, Mumbai (MSA)Google Scholar
–Parasnis DaftarGoogle Scholar
National Archives of India, New Delhi (NAI)Google Scholar
–Foreign Department, Secret Proceedings (FDSP)Google Scholar
–Foreign Department, Persian Branch (FDPr)Google Scholar
–Foreign Department, Political Consultations (FDPC)Google Scholar
National Library of India, Calcutta (NLI)Google Scholar
–Sarkar Collection (SC)Google Scholar
Oriental and India Office Collection, British Library, London (OIOC)Google Scholar
–Oriental Mss., Or. and I.O. IslamicGoogle Scholar
–Richard Johnson PapersGoogle Scholar
–Warren Hastings PapersGoogle Scholar
ʿAbd-ul-karim, . Bayān-i wāqiʿ. Ed. Nasim, K. B.. Lahore: University of Panjab, 1970.Google Scholar
Abu'l Fath, . A Medieval Arabic-Persian Dictionary: al-Mulakhkhas fī al-Lughāt. Ed. Dadkhah, G. and Goodarznia, A.. Costa Mesa, Calif.: Mazda, 2014.Google Scholar
Aitchison, C. U., ed. A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sanads, Relating to India and Neighbouring Countries. 13 vols. Calcutta: Superintendent Government Printing, 1909.Google Scholar
Arzu, Siraj-ud-din Khan. Chirāgh-i hidāyat. In Ghiyas-ud-din Muhammad Rampuri. Ghiyās-ul-lughāt maʿa chirāgh-i hidāyat. Lucknow: Nawal Kishore, 1890.Google Scholar
Aurangzeb, ʿAlamgir. Ruqqaʿāt-i ʿālamgīrī. Kanpur: Matbi-i Nizami, 1876.Google Scholar
Bahar, Lala Tekchand. Bahār-i ʿajam: farhang-i lughāt tarkībāt, kināyat wa amsā1 -i fārsī. 3 vols. Ed. Dizfuliyan, K.. Tehran: Talayah, 2001–2/1380.Google Scholar
Bilgrami, Ghulam ʿAli ‘Azad.’ Khizāna-yi ʿāmira. Kanpur: Nawal Kishore, 1871.Google Scholar
Brahman, Chandar Bhan. Chahār chaman-i brahman. Ed. Jafari, M. Y.. New Delhi: Markaz-i Tahqiqat-i Farsi, 2007.Google Scholar
Clive, R. A Letter to the Proprietors of East India Company Stock. London: Printed for J. Nourse, 1764.Google Scholar
Daghestani, ʿAli Quli Khan. Riyāz-ush-shuʿarā. Ed. Qasmi, S. H.. Rampur: Rampur Raza Library, 2001.Google Scholar
Dihlawi, ʿAbd-ul-haqq. Risāla-yi nūrīya-yi sultānīya. Ed. Akhtar, M. S.. Islamabad: Markaz-i Tahqiqat-i Farsi-i Iran wa Pakistan, 1985.Google Scholar
Forrest, G., ed. Selections from the Letters, Despatches, and Other State Papers Preserved in the Foreign Department of the Government of India, 1772–1785. 3 vols. Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing, 1890.Google Scholar
Ghulam ʿAli Khan, . ʿImād-us-saʿādat. Kanpur: Nawal Kishore, 1897.Google Scholar
Imperial Record Department. Calendar of Persian Correspondence, Being Letters, Referring Mainly to Affairs in Bengal, Which Passed between Some of the Company's Servants and Indian Rulers and Notables. 7 vols. Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing, 1911– 40 (CPC).Google Scholar
Khafi Khan, . Muntakhab-ul-lubāb. 2 vols. Ed. Ahmad, K.. Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1869–74.Google Scholar
Long, J. Selections from the Unpublished Records of Government for the Years 1747 to 1768 Inclusive, vol. 1. Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing, 1869.Google Scholar
Mansaram, Lala. Māʾasir-i nizāmī. Ed. Parvin, Z.. Delhi: Kitab Ghar, 2015.Google Scholar
Mukhlis, Anand Ram. Mirʾāt-ul-istilāh. 2 vols. Ed. Shekhar, C. et al. Delhi: Kitab Ghar, 2013.Google Scholar
Mukhlis, Anand Ram. Safarnāma-yi mukhlis. Ed. and Urdu trans. Azhar, S. A.. Rampur: Hindustan Press, 1946.Google Scholar
Najm-i Sani, Muhammad Baqir. Advice on the Art of Governance: An Indo-Islamic Mirror for Princes: Mauʿizah-i Jahāngīrī of Muhammad Bāqir Najm-i Sānī. Ed. and trans. Alvi, S. S.. Albany: SUNY Press, 1989.Google Scholar
Polier, A. Shah Alam II and His Court, a Narrative of the Transactions at the Court of Delhy from the Year 1771 to the Present Time. Ed. Gupta, P. C.. Calcutta: S. C. Sarkar and Sons, 1947.Google Scholar
Tattavi, ʿAbd-ur-rashid. Muntakhab-ul-lughāt. Lucknow: Nawal Kishore, 1877.Google Scholar
Yusuf ʿAli Khan, . Tārīkh-i bangāla-yi mahābat jangī. Ed. Subhan, A.. Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1969.Google Scholar
Abbott, Nicholas J. “Bringing the Sarkār Back In: Translating Governmentality and the State in Early Modern and Early Colonial India.” In State Formations: Global Histories and Cultures of Statehood, ed. Brooke, John, Strauss, Julia, and Adams, Greg, 124–37. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alam, M. The Crisis of Empire in Mughal North India: Awadh and the Punjab, 1707–48. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1986.Google Scholar
Alam, M. The Languages of Political Islam in India: 1200–1800. New Delhi: Permanent Black, 2004.Google Scholar
Alam, M., and Subrahmanyam, S.. “Introduction.” In The Mughal State, 1526–1750, ed. Alam, Muzaffar and Subrahmanyam, Sanjay, 1–71. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Alavi, S. “Introduction.” In The Eighteenth Century in India, ed. Alavi, Seema, 1–56. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Al-Azmeh, A. Muslim Kingship: Power and the Sacred in Muslim, Christian and Pagan Polities. New York: I. B. Tauris, 1997.Google Scholar
Anghie, A. Imperialism, Sovereignty, and the Making of International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Athar Ali, M. The Mughal Nobility under Aurangzeb. Rev. ed. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001 (1966).Google Scholar
Barnett, R. B. North India between Empires: Awadh, the Mughals, and the British, 1720–1801. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980.Google Scholar
Bayly, C. A. Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.Google Scholar
Benton, L. A Search for Sovereignty: Law and Geography in European Empires, 1400–1900. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Benton, L., and Ford, L.. Rage for Order: The British Empire and the Origins of International Law, 1800–1850. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blake, S. P. “The Patrimonial-Bureaucratic Empire of the Mughals.” The Journal of Asian Studies 39:1 (1979): 77–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burak, G. “The Second Formation of Islamic Law: The Post-Mongol Context of the Ottoman Adoption of a School of Law.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 55:3 (2013): 579–602.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chatterjee, K. “History as Self-Representation: The Recasting of a Political Tradition in Late Eighteenth-Century Eastern India.” Modern Asian Studies 32:4 (1998): 913–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crone, P. God's Rule: Government and Islam. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Datta, K. K. Shah Alam II and the East India Company. Calcutta: The World Press, 1965.Google Scholar
Faruqui, M. D. “At Empire's End: Hyderabad and Eighteenth-Century India.” Modern Asian Studies 43:1 (2009): 5–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faruqui, M. D. Princes of the Mughal Empire, 1504–1719. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, M. H. A Clash of Cultures: Awadh, the British, and the Mughals. Riverdale, Md.: The Riverdale Company, 1987.Google Scholar
Fleischer, C. H. Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire: The Historian Mustafa ʿAli (1541–1600). Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Habib, I. The Agrarian System of Mughal India, 1556–1707. Rev. ed. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999 (1963).Google Scholar
Kinra, R. Writing Self, Writing Empire: Chandar Bhan Brahman and the Cultural World of the Indo-Persian State Secretary. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Leonard, S. P. “A Fit of Absence of Mind? Illiberal Imperialism and the Founding of the British Empire, 1757–76.” PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2010.Google Scholar
Marshall, P. J. “Introduction.” In The Eighteenth Century in Indian History: Evolution or Revolution?, ed. Marshall, P. J., 1–52. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Marshall, P. J. The Making and Unmaking of Empires: Britain, India, and America, c. 1750–1783. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Moin, A. A. The Millennial Sovereign: Sacred Kingship and Sainthood in Islam. New York: Columbia University Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Narayana Rao, V., Shulman, D., and Subrahmanyam, S.. Textures of Time: Writing History in South India, 1600–1800. Delhi: Permanent Black, 2006.Google Scholar
Nayeem, M. A. Mughal Administration of Deccan under Nizamul Mulk Asaf Jah (1720–48 AD). Bombay: Jaico Publishing House, 1985.Google Scholar
Ramusack, B. N. The Indian Princes and Their States. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Siddiqi, N. A. Land Revenue Administration under the Mughals, 1700–1750. Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1970.Google Scholar
Spear, P. Twilight of the Mughuls: Studies in Late Mughul Delhi. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951.Google Scholar
Srivastava, A. L. Shuja-ud-Daulah. 2 vols. Calcutta: S. N. Sarkar, 1939–45.Google Scholar
Stern, P. J. The Company-State: Corporate Sovereignty and the Early Modern Foundations of the British Empire in India. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Subrahmanyam, S. “The Mughal State—Structure or Process? Reflections on Recent Western Historiography.” Indian Economic & Social History Review 29:3 (1992): 291–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Travers, R. “A British Empire by Treaty in Eighteenth-Century India.” In Empire by Treaty: Negotiating European Expansion, 1600–1900, ed. Belmessous, Salia, 132–60. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Travers, R. Ideology and Empire in Eighteenth-Century India: The British in Bengal. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Yılmaz, H. Caliphate Redefined: The Mystical Turn in Ottoman Political Thought. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2018.Google Scholar