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Islam as a Source of Law in the Druze Religious Courts*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 February 2016

Aharon Layish
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Extract

The Druzes have never been recognised as a religious community under Muslim rule. During the Ottoman period such recognition was only granted to the members of the tolerated religions — Christians and Jews — within the institutionalised framework of the millet system. The Druze religion, though originating from the Ismā'īliyya, an extreme branch of the Shī'a, seceded completely from Islam and has, therefore, experienced periods of persecution by the latter. The Druzes were theoretically amenable to the sharī'a courts in matters of personal status and succession, yet not as Muslims (as is usually assumed owing to the custom of taqiyya, simulation, prevailing among them) but as persons not belonging to a recognised religion. At the same time, they seem in practice to have enjoyed a certain autonomy in these matters under their own religious and customary law. There is documentary evidence of this for the Lebanese Druzes, of the late 19th and early 20th century, but this autonomy should not be construed as the status of a recognised religious community.

All attempts of the Druzes to achieve such a status in the era of British rule in Palestine were unsuccessful. They were not included in the list of recognised communities in the Palestine Order-in-Council, 1922–1947, nor the Succession Ordinance, 1923, probably due to a desire of the British Mandate to maintain the status quo in religious matters with only such modifications as the new political situation required. At the same time, the Government recognised Druze autonomy in matters of marriage, while other matters of personal status, and those of succession, were referred to district courts, since the Order-in-Council restricted the personal jurisdiction of the sharī'a courts to Muslim litigants.

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Articles
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Israel Law Review , Volume 14 , Issue 1 , January 1979 , pp. 13 - 30
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Copyright © Cambridge University Press and The Faculty of Law, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem 1979

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References

1 For more detail see Layish, A., “Ma'amad ha-Islam ba-Mispacha ha-Druzit be-Yisra'el” (1976) 26 Hamizrah Hehadash nos. 3–4, pp. 151Google Scholar, 154, 156, 160ff. and the sources indicated there.

2 Ţalī', Amīn Muḥammad, Mashyakhat al-'Aql wa' l-Qadā' al-Madhhabī al-Durzī 'abra al-Ta'rīkh (Beirut, 1971) 117ff.Google Scholar; idem, Aṣl al-Muwaḥḥabīn al-Durūz wa-Usūluhum (Beirut, 1961) 114 ff.; Harīz, Salīm, “Tanzīm al-Qadā' al-Madhhabī fi Lubnān (1973) 6 Majallat al-Akhbār al-Durziyya 56 ff.Google Scholar; Mu'adī, Kamāl'Al-Durūz qabla Isrā'īl” (1958) 1 Majallat al-Akhbār al-Durziyya no. 1, pp. 3 ff.Google Scholar; Fallāḥ, Salmān Ḥamūd, Toldot ha-Druzim be-Yisra'el (Jerusalem, 1974) 54–56Google Scholar, 124–128 and Annexes 1–4; Kamāl, Zakī, “Al-Qadā' al-Ţā'ifī al-Druzī fi Isrā'īl” (1970) 4 Majallat al-Akhbār al-Durziyya nos. 3–4, pp. 69–70Google Scholar; (1958) 1 Majallat al-Akhbār al-Durziyya nos. 2–3, pp. 35–36 (order of Shaykh al-Islam).

3 For more detail see S. Fallāḥ, op. cit., at 56–59, 129–136 and Annexes 5–12; Ţalī', Mashyakha op. cit., at 142.

4 (1957) K.T., no. 695, p. 1280.

5 Laws of Palestine, vol. 2, p. 1292; the Ordinance was amended, in Palestine Gazette no. 660 of 22 January 1937, Suppl. 1, p. 1.

6 For more detail see Layish, A., “Ha-Shiput ha-'Adati shel ha-Druzim be-Yisra'el” (1961) 11 Hamizrah Hehadash no. 4, p. 258Google Scholar; Fallāḥ, Fāris, “Al-Marāḥil allatī Marra bihā al-Ḥukm al-Ţā'ifī 'inda al-Ṭā'ifa al-Durziyya (1966) 3 Majallat al-Akhbār al-Durziyya nos. 1–2, p. 4Google Scholar; Fallāḥ, S., Toldot (supra n. 2) 59 ff.Google Scholar; Kamāl, Al-Qadā' al-Ţā'ifī (supra n. 2) 70; Government Resolution 434 of 19 May 1963 (this resolution has not been published in Reshumot).

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13 Druze Division, File MA/2/35 of 15 April 1953, Meeting no. 20 of the Super-visory Committee of 30 April 1961; ibid., File M/l/3/29 of 24 June 1954, 1 and 18 July 1955, 20 August 1956, 25 March 1957 and 19 October 1959; ibid., File 4/59/4, No. 7/444 of 1 October 1959; ibid., File 4/59/6, No. 1/23 of 23 December 1960; ibid., File of Supervisory Committee of 1 March 1955, 12 and 13 October 1955, 1 June 1956, 1 October 1959, and 22 June 1961; ibid., File DB/14 of 23 May 1954; Kamāl, Al-Qadā' al-Ṭā'ifī (supra n. 2) 71.

14 E.g., Druze Division, File MA/1/3/29 of 11 May 1954; ibid., File 4/59/5 of 26 January 1960; ibid., File of Husayn 'Alayān of 5 February 1960; ibid., File MA/2/35 of 7 September 1962; ibid., File DB/18 of 7 February 1963; F. Fallāḥ, Al-Marāḥil (supra n. 6) 4–6.

15 Druze Division, File of Supervisory Committee, no. 27/9513 of 3 and 19 May 1959 (Meeting no. 2); 11, 18 and 25 August 1959 (Meetings nos. 13, 14 and 15); ibid., File 4/8 of 17 March 1960.

16 Cf. Schacht, J., An Introduction to Islamic Law (Oxford, 1964) 24ff.Google Scholar; Tyan, E., Histoire de l'organisation judiciaire en pays d'Islam (Leiden, 1960) 46–47Google Scholar.

17 (1962) 17 L.S.I. 27. For the Bill and the Explanatory Note see (1961) H.H., no. 509, p. 172.

18 For more detail see Layish, A., “The Muslim Waqf in Israel” (1966) 2 Asian and African Studies 43 ff., 51Google Scholar; ibid., Ha-Shiput (supra n. 6) 259–260; ibid., “He'arot le-Ḥoq Batei ha-Dīn ha-Datiyim ha-Druziyim, 5723–1962” (1965) 15 Hamizrah Hehadash nos. 1–2, pp. 102–103; Fallāḥ, F., Al-Maḥākim (supra n. 12) 51Google Scholar; Kamāl, Zakī, “Al-Waṣiyya fi al-Aḥkām al-Durziyya” (unpublished article of 29 April 1974) 11, n. 3Google Scholar; cf. Ḥariz, Salīm, “Al-Shar' al-Durzī” in Al-Wāqi' al-Durzī wa-Ḥatmiyyat al-Taṭawwur (Beirut, 1962) 73ff.Google Scholar

19 Druze Religious Courts (Special Provisions) Law, 1967, sec. 1 (21 L.S.I. 134); Druze Religious Courts (Amendment No. 3) Law, 1972, sec. 1 (26 L.S.I. 165).

20 For more detail see Fallāḥ, Fāris, “Taṭawwur al-Maḥākim al-Dīniyya al-Durziyya fi al-Sanatayn al-Mādiyayn” (1968) 3 Majallat al-Akhbār al-Durziyya nos. 3–4, p. 45Google Scholar; (1973) 6 Majallat al-Akhbār al-Durziyya 32–33; Fallāh, Fāris, (1968) 3 Majallat al-Akhbār al-Durziyya nos. 3–4, p. 50Google Scholar; Dana, N., Ha-Druzim — 'Eda u-Massoret (Jerusalem, 1974) 92ff.Google Scholar

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22 Mu'adī, , Shu'ūn (supra n. 9) 6–7Google Scholar; Dana, , Ha-Druzim (supra n. 20) 96Google Scholar; interview with Shaykhs Muḥammad 'Alī Farḥāt and Nāyif Fandī Abū ṣliḥ on 7 October 1974. Cf. ṭalī', Mashyakha (supra n. 2) 142.

23 For letters of appointments see (1971) 5 Majallat al-Akhbār al-Durziyya 119–126, and ibid., (1973) 6, p. 84; Dana, , Ha-Druzim (supra n. 20) 96Google Scholar; al-Anbā', 26 August 1971; Ma'arīv, 28 November 1972; The Jerusalem Post, 1 March 1973; Davar, 27 August 1973.

24 Layish, , Ha-Shiput (supra n. 6) 260–262Google Scholar.

25 For more detail of the sources of inspiration see Layish, , Ma'amad (supra n. 1) 150–153Google Scholar; ṭalī', , Mashyakha (supra n. 2) 9Google Scholar ff. For an analysis of the law see Anderson, J.N.D., “The Personal Law of the Druze Community” (1952) N.S. II Die Welt des Islams 1–9, 83–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar; for an English translation see Layish, A. and Dana, N., “The Law of Personal Status of the Druze Community in Israel” in Dana, N. (ed.), The Druze; A Religious Community in Transition (Jerusalem, 1978) 147–175Google Scholar.

26 Anderson, op. cit., at 1–2, 93–94; idem., Law Reform in the Muslim World (London, 1976) 47 ff., 51 ff.; Coulson, N.J., A History of Islamic Law (Edinburgh, 1964) 185 ff.Google Scholar; ṭalī', , Aṣl (supra n. 2) 152Google Scholar; Ḥarīz, , Al-Shar' (supra n. 18) 74Google Scholar; Kamāl, , Al-Qadā' al-ṭā'ifī (supra n. 2) 72–73Google Scholar; idem, Al-Qadā' fi al-Maḥākim (supra n. 9) 39.

27 For more detail see Layish, A., “Ha-Poligamia veha-Mishpacha ha-Druzit be-Yisra'el” (1977) 5 Iyunei Mishpat no. 3, pp. 573–580Google Scholar; idem, “The Prohibition of Reinstating a Divorced Wife in the Druze Family” (1978) 41 Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, part 2, pp. 258–271; idem, “Compensation to the Divorced Woman in the Israeli Druze Family” (1977) 12 Is.L.R. 330–343; idem, “Women and Succession in the Druze Family in Israel” (1976) 11 Asian and African Studies no. 1, pp. 101–119.

28 Interview with Shaykh Amīn ṭarīf on 6 March 1974 and with Shaykh Kamāl Mu'adī on 5 March 1974. See Kamāl, , Al-Qadā' fi al-Maḥākim (supra n. 9) 45Google Scholar.

29 For more detail see Layish, A., Women and Islamic Law in a Non-Islamic State; A Study Based on Decisions of the Sharī'a Courts in Israel (Jerusalem & New York, 1975) 3–4Google Scholar.

30 Rukn, Abū, Al-Maḥkama (supra n. 9) 11Google Scholar.

31 The Syrian law does not apply to the Druzes in matters regarding which their attitude is unique under religious law or the Lebanese Druze Law of 24 February 1948, such as polygamy, divorce, wills and representation in succession (art. 307). See Anderson, J.N.D., “The Syrian Law of Personal Status” (1955) 17 Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

32 Interview with Shaykh Muāmmad 'Alī Farḥat on 29 July 1974, and with the latter and Shaykh Nāyif Fandī Abū ṣaliḥ on 7 Oct. 1974; Druze Division, File DB/14 of 10 Nov. 1972 and 25 May 1973; Dana, , Ha-Druzim (supra n. 20) 96.Google Scholar

33 E.g., Sharī'a Court of Acre (hereinafter: Acre), Sijill Ḥujaj Irth No. 6, File 57/61. For more detail see Layish, A., Marriage, Divorce and Succession in the Druze Family (forthcoming), Ch. 12Google Scholar: Succession.

34 Acre, Sijill Ḥujaj Irth No. 6, p. 30 File 29/62; ibid., Sijill Hujaj Irth No. 5, p. 33 File 15/60.

35 For more detail and, references to the decisions, see the relevant chapters of Layish, , Marriage (supra n. 33).Google Scholar

36 Bryer, D., “The Origins of the Druze Religion” (1975) 52 Die Welt des Islams 247–248Google Scholar, 260–261; Hodgson, M.G.S., “Durūz” in The Encyclopaedia of Islam (new ed.) 634Google Scholar; Hirschberg, H.Z., “The Druzes” in Arberry, J.A. (general ed.), Religion in the Middle East (Cambridge, 1966) vol. 2, pp. 338–339Google Scholar; Hitti, Ph. K., The Origins of the Druze People and Religion, reprint (New York, 1966) 47–48Google Scholar; Fallāḥ, S., Toldot (supra n. 2) 90Google Scholar; ṭalī', , Aṣl (supra n. 2) 133.Google Scholar

37 E.g., Druze Court of Haifa (hereinafter: Haifa), ṭalāq, File 121/73 of 29 November 1973 (suspended repudiation performed three times) and File 15/72 (at the husband's request, the wife swore that she was innocent of adultery). Cf. Layish, , Women and Islamic Law (supra n. 29) 164Google Scholar and the sources indicated there.

38 Haifa, ṭalāq, Files 4/66 and 19ṣ67.

39 Haifa, ṭalaq, File 100ṣ74. See also Druze Court of the Golan Heights (hereinafter: Golan), Ithbāt ṭalāq, File 4/3. For more detail, and references to the decisions see Layish, , The Prohibition (supra n. 27) 265ff.Google Scholar

40 Interview with Mr. Salmān Fallāḥ on 12 March 1974.

41 E.g., Druze Division, Waqf Committee File, No. 9 of 1348H, no. 19 of 23 December 1958; Golan, Irth, File 53/74; Haifa, Irth No. 10/74 File 127/74; Haifa, Waṣiyya, File 9/75 (all the daughters together take half the share of all the sons) and File 112/74.

42 Dana, , Ha-Druzim (supra n. 20) 97–98Google Scholar; Kama], , Al-Qada' al-Tā'ifī (supra n. 2) 72–73Google Scholar; idem, Al-Qadā' fī al-Maḥākim (supra n. 9) 38–39.

43 Anderson, J.N.D., Islamic Law in Africa, new impression (London, 1970) 5, 172.Google Scholar See ibid., the chapters on Nigeria, Sierra Leone and the Gold Coast.

44 ṣa'b, 'Afīfa, “Al-Mar'a al-Durziyya” in Al-Wāqi' al-Durzī wa-Ḥatmiyyat al-Taṭawwur (Beirut, 1962) 120ff.Google Scholar

45 E.g., Haifa, ṭalāq, Files 100/74, 104/74, 118/74, [?]/64 of 15 June 1964 and 132/72.

46 E.g., Haifa, Faskh, File 22/66; Haifa, Nafaqa, File 136/74. Cf. Layish, , Women and Islamic Law (supra n. 29) 202ff.Google Scholar, 333.

47 E.g., Haifa, Irth, Files 26/64, 39/64, 17/65, 57/65, 25/66, 54/68, 141/73, 40/74 and 127/74. Cf. Acre, Sijill Hujaj Irth No. 6, File 57/61 of 10 June 1962.

48 E.g., Haifa, Irth, No. 5/71 File 20/71 and No. 114/73 File 37/73. For more detail see Layish, , Marriage (supra n. 29) Ch. 12Google Scholar: Succession.

49 E.g., Haifa, Irth, No. 40/74 File 127/74.

50 E.g., Haifa, Irth, File 26/65.

51 E.g., Acre, Sijill Hujaj Irth No. 5, File 11/58 of 26 May 1958, and Haifa, Irth, File 35/65; Acre, Sijill Hujaj Irth No. 6, File 57/61 of 10 June 1962, and Haifa, Irth, File 17/65.

52 E.g., Haifa, Waṣiyya, Files 50/64, 61/70, 81/73, 40/74, 41/74, 53/74 and 21/75.

53 Fyzee, A.A.A., The Ismaili Law of Wills (Oxford, 1933) 26Google Scholar, 52; Anderson, , Druze (supra n. 25) 2, 91Google Scholar, 93, and the sources indicated on p. 2, n. 4.

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55 E.g., Haifa, Faskh, File 38/68 and Druze Court of Appeal (hereinafter: Appeal), Faskh, Files 21/65 and 73/69; Haifa, Nafaqa, Files 21/68, 106/72 and 125/73; Haifa, Tafríq, File 51/75; Haifa, ṭā'a, File 81/64. See Linant, Y. de Bellefonds, , Traité de droit musulman comparé (Paris & La Haye, 1965) vol. 2, pp. 457–458Google Scholar, 460–461; Anderson, J.N.D., “Recent Developments in Sharī'a Law: The Dissolution of Marriage” (1951) 41 The Muslim World 284.Google ScholarCf. Layish, , Women and Islamic Law (supra n. 29) 164Google Scholar.

56 E.g., Haifa, Faskh, Files 14/67 and 32/67. See Linant de Bellefonds (supra n. 55) 451ff.

57 E.g., Haifa, ṭalāq, Files 134/72 and 23/74 of 16 April 1973. See Linant de Bellefonds (supra n. 55) 462–464. Cf. Layish, , Women and Islamic Law (supra n. 29) 206.Google Scholar

58 E.g., Haifa, Faskh, Files 32/67 and 78/72; Haifa, ṭalāq, File 37/76. See Linant de Bellefonds (supra n. 55) 454 ff. Cf. Layish, , Women and Islamic Law (supra n. 29) 200.Google Scholar

59 Anderson, , Druze (supra n. 25) 6–7.Google Scholar

60 Layish, , Ma'amad (supra n. 1) 153Google Scholar, and the sources indicated in n. 17; Poonawala, Ismail K., “A Reconsideration of al-Qādī al-Nu'mān's Madhhab” (1974) 37 Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 572 ff.CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Madelung, W., “The Sources of Ismā'īlī Law” (1976) 35 Journal of Near Eastern Studies, no. 1, pp. 29 ff.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

61 For more detail and references to the decisions see Layish, Marriage (supra n. 33) Ch. 9: Divorce. Cf., as against this, idem, Women and Islamic Law (supra n. 29) 199 ff.

62 E.g., Appeal, Khuṭba, File 1/70; ibid., Nafaqa, File 12/70.

63 Cf. Layish, , Women and Islamic Law (supra n. 29) 332.Google Scholar