Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2brh9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T19:46:00.677Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

In search of black bile

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 June 2014

Brian E Leonard
Brian E Leonard*
Affiliation:
Pharmacology Department, University College, Galway, Ireland
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Historically Western medicine has been divided into two main schools that were based on the ancient Greek tradition. These are the Hygeian school, based on the views of Hippocrates (born 460 BC), and the Asclepian school which is named after the Greek god of medicine but probably based on the physician Asclepius who was said to have performed miracles!

In brief, the Hygeian school of medicine views health as a natural state of the body. The body is believed to be endowed with inherent healing powers which, if one lives in harmony with these powers, maintains health and helps to restore it should it become impaired. Disease is seen as a manifestation of a weakness of the inherent healing powers of the body and the function of the physician is to help the patients to live within the natural law (vis medicatrix naturae) and to remove impediments to those mechanisms that maintain and restore health.

The second school that has profoundly influenced the development of modern medicine is the Asclepian school which arose in about 1200 BC around the teaching of Asclepius. This school focuses on diseases, their causes and cures. Each disease is considered to be the effect of, or response to, a specific cause that primarily affects a specific organ system. For every disease it is postulated that there is a specific drug or procedure which can alleviate the symptoms or cure the disease. Thus, the successful physician is the one who can make the correct diagnosis and prescribe the correct therapy.

Type
Historical
Information
Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine , Volume 13 , Issue 2 , June 1996 , pp. 79 - 82
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1996

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1.Early Greek and Roman Medicine. Encyclopaedia Britannica 1983; 11:826–7.Google Scholar
2.Still, AT. Autobiography, Kirksville, Missouri 1897; 100.Google Scholar
3.Leonard, BE. The effect of chronic administration of barbitone sodium on chemically and electrically induced convulsions in the rat. Int J Neuropharmac 1968; 7:463–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
4.Riddell, D, Leonard, BE. Some effects of a coma producing material obtained from mammalian brain. Neuropharmac 1970; 9:283–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
5.Leonard, BE, Riddell, D. Neurochemical effects of a coma producing material from mammalian brain. Neuropharmac 1970; 9:489–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
6.Lai, H, La Bella, F, Lane, J. Preface In: Endocoids (Eds. Lai, H, La Bella, F, Lane, J). Alan R Liss Inc., New York, 1985; xxi.Google Scholar
7.Hughe, J, Smith, TW, Kosterlitz, HW. Identification of two related pentapetides from the brain with potent opiate agonist activity. Nature, 258:577.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
8.Costa, E, Guidotti, A. Molecular mechanism in the receptor action of benzodiazepines. Ann Rev Phararmac 1979; 19:531–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Asano, JT. and Spector, S. Identification of inosine and hypoxanthine as endogenous ligands for brain benzodiazepine binding sites. Proc Natl Acad Sci 1978;76:977–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
10.Mohler, H, Pole, P, Cummin, R, Pieri, L, Kettler, R. Nicotinamide is a brain constituent with benzodiazepine like actions. Nature 1979; 278:563–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
11.De Bias, AL, Sotelo, C. Localization of benzodiazepine-like molecules in the rat brain. A light and election microscopy immunocytochemistry study with an antibenzodiazepine monoclonal antibody. Brain Res; 413:285–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
12.Schofield, PR, Darlison, MG, Fujita, N. Sequence and functional expression of the GABA A receptor shows a ligand gated receptor superfamily. Nature 1987; 328:221–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
13.Haefely, W. Actions and interactians of benzodiazepine agonists and antagonists at GABAergic synapses. In: Actions and interactions of GABA and benzodiazepine. (Ed. Bawery, NG, Raven Press, New York, 1984; 263–85.Google ScholarPubMed
14.Muller, WE. The benzodiazepine receptor. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1987; 78–96 (1987).Google Scholar
15.Kennedy, B, Leonard, BE. Similarity between the action of nicotinamide and diazepam on neurotransmitter metabolism in the rat. Biochem Soc Trans 1980; 8:59–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
16.Braestrup, C, Nielsen, M, Olsen, CE. Urinary and brain beta carboline 3 carboxylates as potent inhibitor of brain benzodiazepine receptors. Proc Nat Acad Sci 1988;77:2288–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
17.De Blas, AL. Benzodiazepines and benzodiazepine-like molecules are present in brain. In: Naturally occurring Benzodiazepines. (Eds: Izquierdo, I, Medina, J.). Ellis Horwood, New York 1993; 1–27.Google Scholar
18.Luckner, M. Secondary metabolism in microorganisms, plants and animals. 2nd Edition. Springer-Verlag, Berlin 1984; 272–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
19.Basile, AS, Gammal, S. The involvement of benzodiazepine receptors in hepatic encephalopathy: implications for treatment with benzodiazepine receptor antagonists. Clinical Neuropharm 1988;11: 401–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
20.Mullen, KD, Mendelson, WB, Martin, JV; Roeslle, M. Could an endogenous benzodiazepine ligand contribute to hepatic encephalopathy? In: Naturally Occurring Benzodiazepines. (Eds. Izquierdo, I, Medina, J.Ellis Horwood, New York 1993; 89–114.Google Scholar
21.Basile, AS. The role of benzodiazepine receptor ligand in the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy. In: Naturally Occurring Benzodiazepines. (Eds. Izquierdo, I, Medina, J.Ellis Horwood, New York 1993; 89–114.Google Scholar
22.Cultural Areas. Encyclopaedia Britannica 1983; 5: 365.Google Scholar
23.Brusov, OS, Beliaev, BS, Katasonov, AB, Zlobaina, GP. Does platelet serotonin receptor supersensitivity accompany endogenous depression? Biol Psychiat 1989; 25:375–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
24.Healy, D, Carney, PA, Leonard, BE. Monoamine related markers of depression. J Psychiat Res; 17:251–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
25.Healy, D, Carney, PA, O'Halloran, A, Leonard, BE. Peripheral adrenoceptors and sorotonin receptors in depression. J Affect Dis 1985; 17:285–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
26.Roth, BL, Nakaki, T, Chaune, DM, Costa, E. Evidence for an endocoid for the 5HT2 recognition site. Prog Clin Biol Res 1985;192:473–6.Google Scholar
27.McAdams, C, Leonard, BE. Changes in platelet aggregatory responses to collagen and 5-hydroxy tryptamine in depressed schizophrenic and manic patients. Int Clin Psychopharmac 1992; 7:81–5.Google ScholarPubMed
28.Nugent, DF, Dinan, TG, Leonard, BE. Alteration by a plasma factor(s) of platelet aggregation in ummedicated unipolar depressed patients. J Affect Dis 1994; 31:61–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
29.Calabrese, J, Skwereer, RG, Barna, B. Depression, immunocompetence and prostaglandins of the E series. Psychiat Res 1986;17:44–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
30.Krup, P, Wesp, W. Inhibition of prostaglandin synthetase by psychotropic drugs. Experientia 1975; 31:330–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
31.Tang, SW, Cheung, S, Strijewski, A, Chudzik, J. Anti-imipramine antibodies recognize endogenous serotonin uptake and imipramine binding inhibitors. Psychiat Res 1990; 34:205–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
32.McAdams, C, Colohan, F, Brophy, J, Leonard, BE. Alteration by a plasma factor of platelet aggregation and 5HT uptake in depression. Biol Psychiat 1992; 32:296–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
33.Leonard, BE. In search for black bile: do antidepressants act by changing endogenous endocoids in the depressed patient? J Psychopharmac 1993; 7:1–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
34.Takeuchi, Y, Root-Bernstein, RS, Shih, JC. Peptide displacement of 3H-5-hydroxytryptamine to bovine cortical membranes. Brain Res Bull 1990;25:817–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
35.Gruber, KA, Klein, MC, Lymangrover, JR. Natriuretic peptides derived from pro-opioocortin. In: Endocoids. (Eds. Lal, H, La Bella, F, Lane, J). Alan R Liss, New York 1985; 213–20.Google Scholar
36.Valdes, R. Endogeous digoxin-immunoreacfive substances measured in several patient populations. Endocoids 1985; 221–8.Google Scholar
37.Smith, EM, Blalock, JE. Human lymphocyte production of ACTH and endorphin-like subtances: association with leucocyte interferon. Proc Natl Acad Sci, USA 1981;78:7530–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
38.Dafny, N. Interferon as an endocoid candidate preventing and attenuating opiate addition. In: Endocoids. (Eds. Lal, H, La Bella, F, Lane, J). Alan R Liss, New York 1985; 269–76.Google ScholarPubMed
39.Zetler, G. Neuropharmacological profile of cholecystokinin-like peptides. Ann NY Acad Sci 1985; 448:448–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
40.Sandler, M. Benzodiazepines: studies on a possible endogenous ligand. In: Benzodiazepines Divided. (Ed. Trimble, M.) John Wiley and Sons, Chichester 1983; 139–47.Google Scholar
41.Koob, FG, Thatcher, BK, Tazi, A, Le, MM. Behavioural pharmacology of stress: focus on CNS corticotorphin releasing factor. Adv Exp Med Biol 1988; 245:25–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
42.Richie, JC, Nemeroff, CB. Stress, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and depression. In: Stress, Neuropeptides and Systemic Disease. (Eds. McCubbin, JA, Kaufmann, PG, Nemeroff, CB) Academic Press, New York 1991; 181–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
43.Contreras, PCD, Maggio, DA, O'Donohue, TL. Evidence for an endogenous peptide ligand and antagonist for PCP receptors. In: Endocoids. (Eds. lal, H, La Bella, F, Lane, T.) Alan R. Liss Inc., New York 1985; 495–8.Google Scholar
44.Nemeroff, CB. Neurotensin: perchance an endogenous neuroleptic? Biol Psychiat 1980;15:283–302.Google ScholarPubMed