Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-ndw9j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-16T18:02:51.178Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Childhood trauma and functional disability in psychosis, bipolar disorder and borderline personality disorder: a review of the literature

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 December 2014

J. Cotter ,
M. Kaess  and
A. R. Yung
J. Cotter*
Affiliation:
Institute of Brain, Behaviour and Mental Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
M. Kaess
Affiliation:
Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
A. R. Yung
Affiliation:
Institute of Brain, Behaviour and Mental Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK Orygen Youth Health Research Centre, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
*
*Address for correspondence: J. Cotter, Institute of Brain, Behaviour and Mental Health, University of Manchester, Room 3.306, Jean McFarlane Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK. (Email: [email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Objectives

We aimed to examine the association between childhood trauma and functional impairment in psychotic disorders, bipolar disorder and borderline personality disorder, to speculate on possible mechanisms that underlie this association and discuss the implications for clinical work.

Methods

Narrative review of the peer-reviewed English language literature in the area.

Results

High rates of childhood trauma in psychotic disorders, bipolar disorder and borderline personality disorder were identified. This was associated with impaired social and occupational functioning in both the premorbid and established phases of each of these psychiatric disorders over and above the deficits typically observed in these populations. Possible mechanisms mediating this relationship include neurocognitive deficits, insecure attachment, higher rates of comorbidities and problems with adherence and response to treatment.

Conclusions

Routine clinical inquiry about childhood maltreatment should be adopted within mental health settings. This has potentially important treatment implications for identifying those individuals at elevated risk of functional disability. While there is no clear guidance currently available on how to target childhood trauma in the treatment of psychotic disorders, bipolar disorder or borderline personality disorder, there are several promising lines of enquiry and further research is warranted.

Keywords

Bipolar disorderborderline personality disorderchild abusechildhood traumafunctioningpsychosisschizophrenia
Type
Review Articles
Information
Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine , Volume 32 , Issue 1: Special Issue: Youth Mental Health , March 2015 , pp. 21 - 30
Copyright
© College of Psychiatrists of Ireland 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aas, M, Dazzan, P, Mondelli, V, Melle, I, Murray, RM, Pariante, CM (2014). A systematic review of cognitive function in first-episode psychosis, including a discussion on childhood trauma, stress, and inflammation. Frontiers in Psychiatry 4, 182.Google Scholar
Aas, M, Navari, S, Gibbs, A, Mondelli, V, Fisher, HL, Morgan, C, Morgan, K, MacCabe, J, Reichenberg, A, Zanelli, J, Fearon, P, Jones, PB, Murray, RM, Pariante, CM, Dazzan, P (2012a). Is there a link between childhood trauma, cognition, and amygdala and hippocampus volume in first-episode psychosis? Schizophrenia Research 137, 73–79.Google Scholar
Aas, M, Steen, NE, Agartz, I, Aminoff, SR, Lorentzen, S, Sundet, K, Andreassen, OA, Melle, I (2012b). Is cognitive impairment following early life stress in severe mental disorders based on specific or general cognitive functioning? Psychiatry Research 198, 495–500.Google Scholar
Addington, J, Stowkowy, J, Cadenhead, KS, Cornblatt, BA, McGlashan, TH, Perkins, DO, Seidman, LJ, Tsuang, MT, Walker, EF, Woods, SW, Cannon, TD (2013). Early traumatic experiences in those at clinical high risk for psychosis. Early Intervention in Psychiatry 7, 300–305.Google Scholar
Afifi, TO, Mather, A, Boman, J, Fleisher, W, Enns, MW, Macmillan, H, Sareen, J (2011). Childhood adversity and personality disorders: results from a nationally representative population-based study. Journal of Psychiatric Research 45, 814–822.Google Scholar
Ball, JS, Links, PS (2009). Borderline personality disorder and childhood trauma: evidence for a causal relationship. Current Psychiatry Reports 11, 63–68.Google Scholar
Barahal, RM, Waterman, J, Martin, HP (1981). The social cognitive development of abused children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 49, 508–516.Google Scholar
Bateman, A, Fonagy, P (2009). Randomized controlled trial of outpatient mentalization-based treatment versus structured clinical management for borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 166, 1355–1364.Google Scholar
Berg, AO, Aas, M, Larsson, S, Nerhus, M, Hauff, E, Andreassen, OA, Melle, I (2014). Childhood trauma mediates the association between ethnic minority status and more severe hallucinations in psychotic disorder. Psychological Medicine (in press).Google Scholar
Berry, K, Barrowclough, C, Wearden, A (2009). Adult attachment, perceived earlier experiences of care giving and trauma in people with psychosis. Journal of Mental Health 18, 280–287.Google Scholar
Bohus, M, Dyer, AS, Priebe, K, Krüger, A, Kleindienst, N, Schmahl, C, Niedtfeld, I, Steil, R (2013). Dialectical behaviour therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder after childhood sexual abuse in patients with and without borderline personality disorder: a randomised controlled trial. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 82, 221–233.Google Scholar
Bonoldi, I, Simeone, E, Rocchetti, M, Codjoe, L, Rossi, G, Gambi, F, Balottin, U, Caverzasi, E, Politi, P, Fusar-Poli, P (2013). Prevalence of self-reported childhood abuse in psychosis: a meta-analysis of retrospective studies. Psychiatry Research 210, 8–15.Google Scholar
Braehler, C, Valiquette, L, Holowka, D, Malla, AK, Joober, R, Ciampi, A, Pawliuk, N, King, S (2013). Childhood trauma and dissociation in first-episode psychosis, chronic schizophrenia and community controls. Psychiatric Research 210, 36–42.Google Scholar
Bücker, J, Kapczinski, F, Post, R, Ceresér, KM, Szobot, C, Yatham, LN, Kapczinski, NS, Kauer-Sant’Anna, M (2012). Cognitive impairment in school-aged children with early trauma. Comprehensive Psychiatry 53, 758–764.Google Scholar
Bücker, J, Kozicky, J, Torres, IJ, Kauer-Sant’anna, M, Silveira, LE, Bond, DJ, Lam, RW, Yatham, LN (2013). The impact of childhood trauma on cognitive functioning in patients recently recovered from a first manic episode: data from the Systematic Treatment Optimization Program for Early Mania (STOP-EM). Journal of Affective Disorders 148, 424–430.Google Scholar
Campbell, C, Barrett, S, Shannon, C, Hoy, K, Rushe, T, Cooper, S, Mulholland, C (2013). The relationship between childhood trauma and neuropsychological functioning in first episode psychosis. Psychosis 5, 48–59.Google Scholar
Carter, V, Myers, MR (2007). Exploring the risks of substantiated physical neglect related to poverty and parental characteristics: a national sample. Children and Youth Services Review 29, 110–121.Google Scholar
Chen, LP, Murad, MH, Paras, ML, Colbenson, KM, Sattler, AL, Goranson, EN, Elamin, MB, Seime, RJ, Shinozaki, G, Prokop, LJ, Zirakzadeh, A (2010). Sexual abuse and lifetime diagnosis of psychiatric disorders: systematic review and meta-analysis. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 85, 618–629.Google Scholar
Choi, KH, Davidson, C, Spaulding, WD (2011). Social cognition moderates the influence of child physical abuse on inpatient psychiatric rehabilitation. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 199, 465–470.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D, Rogosch, FA, Maughan, A, Toth, SL, Bruce, J (2003). False belief understanding in maltreated children. Development and Psychopathology 15, 1067–1091.Google Scholar
Classen, CC, Palesh, OG, Aggarwal, R (2005). Sexual revictimization: a review of the empirical literature. Trauma, Violence & Abuse 6, 103–129.Google Scholar
Conus, P, Cotton, S, Schimmelmann, BG, Berk, M, Daglas, R, McGorry, PD, Lambert, M (2010). Pretreatment and outcome correlates of past sexual and physical trauma in 118 bipolar I disorder patients with a first episode of psychotic mania. Bipolar Disorders 12, 244–252.Google Scholar
Cotter, J, Drake, RJ, Bucci, S, Firth, J, Edge, D, Yung, AR (2014). What drives poor functioning in the at-risk mental state? A systematic review. Schizophrenia Research 159, 267–277.Google Scholar
Davidson, G, Shannon, C, Mulholland, C, Campbell, J (2009). A longitudinal study of the effects of childhood trauma on symptoms and functioning of people with severe mental health problems. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation 10, 57–68.Google Scholar
Dickson, H, Laurens, KR, Cullen, AE, Hodgins, S (2012). Meta-analyses of cognitive and motor function in youth aged 16 years and younger who subsequently develop schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine 42, 743–755.Google Scholar
Distel, MA, Middeldorp, CM, Trull, TJ, Derom, CA, Willemsen, G, Boomsma, DI (2011). Life events and borderline personality features: the influence of gene-environment interaction and gene-environment correlation. Psychological Medicine 41, 849–860.Google Scholar
Dunayevich, E, Keck, PE Jr (2000). Prevalence and description of psychotic features in bipolar mania. Current Psychiatry Reports 2, 286–290.Google Scholar
Etain, B, Aas, M, Andreassen, OA, Lorentzen, S, Dieset, I, Gard, S, Kahn, JP, Bellivier, F, Leboyer, M, Melle, I, Henry, C (2013). Childhood trauma is associated with severe clinical characteristics of bipolar disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 74, 991–998.Google Scholar
Ferraz, L, Portella, MJ, Vállez, M, Gutiérrez, F, Martín-Blanco, A, Martín-Santos, R, Subirà, S (2013). Hostility and childhood sexual abuse as predictors of suicidal behaviour in Borderline Personality Disorder. Psychiatry Research 210, 980–985.Google Scholar
Fett, AK, Viechtbauer, W, Dominguez, MD, Penn, DL, van Os, J, Krabbendam, L (2011). The relationship between neurocognition and social cognition with functional outcomes in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 35, 573–588.Google Scholar
Fowke, A, Ross, S, Ashcroft, K (2012). Childhood maltreatment and internalized shame in adults with a diagnosis of bipolar disorder. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy 19, 450–457.Google Scholar
Fusar-Poli, P, Borgwardt, S, Bechdolf, A, Addington, J, Riecher-Rössler, A, Schultze-Lutter, F, Keshavan, M, Wood, S, Ruhrmann, S, Seidman, LJ, Valmaggia, L, Cannon, T, Velthorst, E, De Haan, L, Cornblatt, B, Bonoldi, I, Birchwood, M, McGlashan, T, Carpenter, W, McGorry, P, Klosterkötter, J, McGuire, P, Yung, A (2013). The psychosis high-risk state: a comprehensive state-of-the-art review. JAMA Psychiatry 70, 107–120.Google Scholar
Gil, A, Gama, CS, de Jesus, DR, Lobato, MI, Zimmer, M, Belmonte-de-Abreu, P (2009). The association of child abuse and neglect with adult disability in schizophrenia and the prominent role of physical neglect. Child Abuse & Neglect 33, 618–624.Google Scholar
Gilbert, R, Widom, CS, Browne, K, Fergusson, D, Webb, E, Janson, S (2009). Burden and consequences of child maltreatment in high-income countries. Lancet 373, 68–81.Google Scholar
Gumley, AI, Taylor, HE, Schwannauer, M, MacBeth, A (2014). A systematic review of attachment and psychosis: measurement, construct validity and outcomes. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 129, 257–274.Google Scholar
Gunderson, JG, Daversa, MT, Grilo, CM, McGlashan, TH, Zanarini, MC, Shea, MT, Skodol, AE, Yen, S, Sanislow, CA, Bender, DS, Dyck, IR, Morey, LC, Stout, RL (2006). Predictors of 2-year outcome for patients with borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 163, 822–826.Google Scholar
Hammersley, P, Dias, A, Todd, G, Bowen-Jones, K, Reilly, B, Bentall, RP (2003). Childhood trauma and hallucinations in bipolar affective disorder: preliminary investigation. British Journal of Psychiatry 182, 543–547.Google Scholar
Harned, MS, Rizvi, SL, Linehan, MM (2010). Impact of co-occurring posttraumatic stress disorder on suicidal women with borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 167, 1210–1217.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horan, WP, Green, MF, DeGroot, M, Fiske, A, Hellemann, G, Kee, K, Kern, RS, Lee, J, Sergi, MJ, Subotnik, KL, Sugar, CA, Ventura, J, Nuechterlein, KH (2012). Social cognition in schizophrenia, Part 2: 12-month stability and prediction of functional outcome in first-episode patients. Schizophrenia Bulletin 38, 865–872.Google Scholar
Hoy, K, Barrett, S, Shannon, C, Campbell, C, Watson, D, Rushe, T, Shevlin, M, Bai, F, Cooper, S, Mulholland, C (2012). Childhood trauma and hippocampal and amygdalar volumes in first-episode psychosis. Schizophrenia Bulletin 38, 1162–1169.Google Scholar
Isohanni, M, Jones, PB, Moilanen, K, Rantakallio, P, Veijola, J, Oja, H, Koiranen, M, Jokelainen, J, Croudace, T, Järvelin, M (2001). Early developmental milestones in adult schizophrenia and other psychoses. A 31-year follow-up of the Northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort. Schizophrenia Research 52, 1–19.Google Scholar
Janssen, I, Krabbendam, L, Bak, M, Hanssen, M, Vollebergh, W, de Graaf, R, van Os, J (2004). Childhood abuse as a risk factor for psychotic experiences. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 109, 38–45.Google Scholar
Jaudes, PK, Mackey-Bilaver, L (2008). Do chronic conditions increase young children’s risk of being maltreated? Child Abuse & Neglect 32, 671–681.Google Scholar
Jones, P, Rodgers, B, Murray, R, Marmot, M (1994). Child development risk factors for adult schizophrenia in the British 1946 birth cohort. Lancet 344, 1398–1402.Google Scholar
Kaess, M, Resch, F, Parzer, P, von Ceumern-Lindenstjerna, IA, Henze, R, Brunner, R (2013). Temperamental patterns in female adolescents with borderline personality disorder. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 201, 109–115.Google Scholar
Kelleher, I, Harley, M, Lynch, F, Arseneault, L, Fitzpatrick, C, Cannon, M (2008). Associations between childhood trauma, bullying and psychotic symptoms among a school-based adolescent sample. British Journal of Psychiatry 193, 378–382.Google Scholar
Kelleher, I, Keeley, H, Corcoran, P, Ramsay, H, Wasserman, C, Carli, V, Sarchiapone, M, Hoven, C, Wasserman, D, Cannon, M (2013). Childhood trauma and psychosis in a prospective cohort study: cause, effect, and directionality. American Journal of Psychiatry 170, 734–741.Google Scholar
Kingdon, DG, Ashcroft, K, Bhandari, B, Gleeson, S, Warikoo, N, Symons, M, Taylor, L, Lucas, E, Mahendra, R, Ghosh, S, Mason, A, Badrakalimuthu, R, Hepworth, C, Read, J, Mehta, R (2010). Schizophrenia and borderline personality disorder: similarities and differences in the experience of auditory hallucinations, paranoia, and childhood trauma. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 198, 399–403.Google Scholar
Koizumi, M, Takagishi, H (2014). The relationship between child maltreatment and emotion recognition. PLoS One 9, e86093.Google Scholar
Lardinois, M, Lataster, T, Mengelers, R, Van Os, J, Myin-Germeys, I (2011). Childhood trauma and increased stress sensitivity in psychosis. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 123, 28–35.Google Scholar
Larsson, S, Aas, M, Klungsøyr, O, Agartz, I, Mork, E, Steen, NE, Barrett, EA, Lagerberg, TV, Røssberg, JI, Melle, I, Andreassen, OA, Lorentzen, S (2013b). Patterns of childhood adverse events are associated with clinical characteristics of bipolar disorder. BMC Psychiatry 13, 97.Google Scholar
Larsson, S, Andreassen, OA, Aas, M, Røssberg, JI, Mork, E, Steen, NE, Barrett, EA, Lagerberg, TV, Peleikis, D, Agartz, I, Melle, I, Lorentzen, S (2013a). High prevalence of childhood trauma in patients with schizophrenia spectrum and affective disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry 54, 123–127.Google Scholar
Linehan, MM (1993). Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder. Guilford: New York.Google Scholar
Links, PS, Kolla, NJ, Guimond, T, McMain, S (2013). Prospective risk factors for suicide attempts in a treated sample of patients with borderline personality disorder. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 58, 99–106.Google Scholar
Lu, W, Mueser, KT, Rosenberg, SD, Jankowski, MK (2008). Correlates of adverse childhood experiences among adults with severe mood disorders. Psychiatric Services 59, 1018–1026.Google Scholar
Lysaker, PH, Beattie, NL, Strasburger, AM, Davis, LW (2005). Reported history of child sexual abuse in schizophrenia: associations with heightened symptom levels and poorer participation over four months in vocational rehabilitation. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 193, 790–795.Google Scholar
Lysaker, PH, Meyer, P, Evans, JD, Marks, KA (2001b). Neurocognitive and symptom correlates of self-reported childhood sexual abuse in schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry 13, 89–92.Google Scholar
Lysaker, PH, Meyer, PS, Evans, JD, Clements, CA, Marks, KA (2001a). Childhood sexual trauma and psychosocial functioning in adults with schizophrenia. Psychiatric Services 52, 1485–1488.Google Scholar
Lysaker, PH, Nees, MA, Lancaster, RS, Davis, LW (2004). Vocational function among persons with schizophrenia with and without history of childhood sexual trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress 17, 435–438.Google Scholar
Lysaker, PH, Wright, DE, Clements, CA, Plascak-Hallberg, CD (2002). Neurocognitive and psychosocial correlates of hostility among persons in a post-acute phase of schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Comprehensive Psychiatry 43, 319–324.Google Scholar
MacBeth, A, Gumley, A, Schwannauer, M, Fisher, R (2011). Attachment states of mind, mentalization, and their correlates in a first-episode psychosis sample. Psychology and Psychotherapy 84, 42–57.Google Scholar
Martinez-Aran, A, Vieta, E, Torrent, C, Sanchez-Moreno, J, Goikolea, JM, Salamero, M, Malhi, GS, Gonzalez-Pinto, A, Daban, C, Alvarez-Grandi, S, Fountoulakis, K, Kaprinis, G, Tabares-Seisdedos, R, Ayuso-Mateos, JL (2007). Functional outcome in bipolar disorder: the role of clinical and cognitive factors. Bipolar Disorders 9, 103–113.Google Scholar
Mersky, JP, Berger, LM, Reynolds, AJ, Gromoske, AN (2009). Risk factors for child and adolescent maltreatment: a longitudinal investigation of a cohort of inner-city youth. Child Maltreatment 14, 73–88.Google Scholar
Miller, TJ, McGlashan, TH, Rosen, JL, Somjee, L, Markovich, PJ, Stein, K, Woods, SW (2002). Prospective diagnosis of the initial prodrome for schizophrenia based on the Structured Interview for Prodromal Syndromes: preliminary evidence of interrater reliability and predictive validity. American Journal of Psychiatry 159, 863–865.Google Scholar
Minzenberg, MJ, Poole, JH, Vinogradov, S (2006). Adult social attachment disturbance is related to childhood maltreatment and current symptoms in borderline personality disorder. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 194, 341–348.Google Scholar
Mondelli, V, Cattaneo, A, Belvederi Murri, M, Di Forti, M, Handley, R, Hepgul, N, Miorelli, A, Navari, S, Papadopoulos, AS, Aitchison, KJ, Morgan, C, Murray, RM, Dazzan, P, Pariante, CM (2011). Stress and inflammation reduce brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression in first-episode psychosis: a pathway to smaller hippocampal volume. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 72, 1677–1684.Google Scholar
Morandotti, N, Dima, D, Jogia, J, Frangou, S, Sala, M, Vidovich, GZ, Lazzaretti, M, Gambini, F, Marraffini, E, d’Allio, G, Barale, F, Zappoli, F, Caverzasi, E, Brambilla, P (2013). Childhood abuse is associated with structural impairment in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex and aggressiveness in patients with borderline personality disorder. Psychiatry Research 213, 18–23.Google Scholar
Moretti, MM, Peled, M (2004). Adolescent-parent attachment: bonds that support healthy development. Paediatrics & Child Health 9, 551–555.Google Scholar
Mueser, KT, Lu, W, Rosenberg, SD, Wolfe, R (2010). The trauma of psychosis: posttraumatic stress disorder and recent onset psychosis. Schizophrenia Research 116, 217–227.Google Scholar
Murray, RM, Lewis, SW (1987). Is schizophrenia a neurodevelopmental disorder? British Medical Journal 295, 681–682.Google Scholar
Nanni, V, Uher, R, Danese, A (2012). Childhood maltreatment predicts unfavorable course of illness and treatment outcome in depression: a meta-analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry 169, 141–151.Google Scholar
Neigh, GN, Gillespie, CF, Nemeroff, CB (2009). The neurobiological toll of child abuse and neglect. Trauma, Violence & Abuse 10, 389–410.Google Scholar
Pears, KC, Fisher, PA (2005). Emotion understanding and theory of mind among maltreated children in foster care: evidence of deficits. Development and Psychopathology 17, 47–65.Google Scholar
Pechtel, P, Pizzagalli, DA (2011). Effects of early life stress on cognitive and affective function: an integrated review of human literature. Psychopharmacology 214, 55–70.Google Scholar
Pos, K, Bartels-Velthuis, AA, Simons, CJ, Korver-Nieberg, N, Meijer, CJ, de Haan, L, for GROUP (2014). Theory of mind and attachment styles in people with psychotic disorders, their siblings, and controls. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry (in press).Google Scholar
Read, J, Perry, BD, Moskowitz, A, Connolly, J (2001). The contribution of early traumatic events to schizophrenia in some patients: a traumagenic neurodevelopmental model. Psychiatry 64, 319–345.Google Scholar
Regier, DA, Farmer, ME, Rae, DS, Locke, BZ, Keith, SJ, Judd, LL, Goodwin, FK (1990). Comorbidity of mental disorders with alcohol and other drug abuse. Results from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area (ECA) Study. JAMA 264, 2511–2518.Google Scholar
Roepke, S, Vater, A, Preißler, S, Heekeren, HR, Dziobek, I (2013). Social cognition in borderline personality disorder. Frontiers in Neuroscience 6, 195.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenberg, SD, Lu, W, Mueser, KT, Jankowski, MK, Cournos, F (2007). Correlates of adverse childhood events among adults with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Psychiatric Services 58, 245–253.Google Scholar
Sar, V, Taycan, O, Bolat, N, Ozmen, M, Duran, A, Oztürk, E, Ertem-Vehid, H (2010). Childhood trauma and dissociation in schizophrenia. Psychopathology 43, 33–40.Google Scholar
Schäfer, I, Fisher, HL, Aderhold, V, Huber, B, Hoffmann-Langer, L, Golks, D, Karow, A, Ross, C, Read, J, Harfst, T (2012). Dissociative symptoms in patients with schizophrenia: relationships with childhood trauma and psychotic symptoms. Comprehensive Psychiatry 53, 364–371.Google Scholar
Schenkel, LS, Spaulding, WD, DiLillo, D, Silverstein, SM (2005). Histories of childhood maltreatment in schizophrenia: relationships with premorbid functioning, symptomatology, and cognitive deficits. Schizophrenia Research 76, 273–286.Google Scholar
Schwandt, ML, Heilig, M, Hommer, DW, George, DT, Ramchandani, VA (2013). Childhood trauma exposure and alcohol dependence severity in adulthood: mediation by emotional abuse severity and neuroticism. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 37, 984–992.Google Scholar
Shamsi, S, Lau, A, Lencz, T, Burdick, KE, DeRosse, P, Brenner, R, Lindenmayer, JP, Malhotra, AK (2011). Cognitive and symptomatic predictors of functional disability in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 126, 257–264.Google Scholar
Shannon, C, Douse, K, McCusker, C, Feeney, L, Barrett, S, Mulholland, C (2011). The association between childhood trauma and memory functioning in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 37, 531–537.Google Scholar
Sheffield, JM, Williams, LE, Woodward, ND, Heckers, S (2013). Reduced gray matter volume in psychotic disorder patients with a history of childhood sexual abuse. Schizophrenia Research 143, 185–191.Google Scholar
Smith, DK, Johnson, AB, Pears, KC, Fisher, PA, DeGarmo, DS (2007). Child maltreatment and foster care: unpacking the effects of prenatal and postnatal parental substance use. Child Maltreatment 12, 150–160.Google Scholar
Soloff, P, Nutche, J, Goradia, D, Diwadkar, V (2008). Structural brain abnormalities in borderline personality disorder: a voxel-based morphometry study. Psychiatry Research 164, 223–236.Google Scholar
Spence, W, Mulholland, C, Lynch, G, McHugh, S, Dempster, M, Shannon, C (2006). Rates of childhood trauma in a sample of patients with schizophrenia as compared with a sample of patients with non-psychotic psychiatric diagnoses. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation 7, 7–22.Google Scholar
Spencer, D (2002). Paediatric trauma: when it is not an accident. Accident and Emergency Nursing 10, 143–148.Google Scholar
Stain, HJ, Brønnick, K, Hegelstad, WT, Joa, I, Johannessen, JO, Langeveld, J, Mawn, L, Larsen, TK (2014). Impact of interpersonal trauma on the social functioning of adults with first-episode psychosis. Schizophrenia Bulletin 40, 1491–1498.Google Scholar
Statucka, M, Walder, DJ (2013). Efficacy of social cognition remediation programs targeting facial affect recognition deficits in schizophrenia: a review and consideration of high-risk samples and sex differences. Psychiatry Research 206, 125–139.Google Scholar
Tait, L, Birchwood, M, Trower, P (2004). Adapting to the challenge of psychosis: personal resilience and the use of sealing-over (avoidant) coping strategies. British Journal of Psychiatry 185, 410–415.Google Scholar
Teicher, MH, Samson, JA (2013). Childhood maltreatment and psychopathology: a case for ecophenotypic variants as clinically and neurobiologically distinct subtypes. American Journal of Psychiatry 170, 1114–1133.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thabrew, H, de Sylva, S, Romans, SE (2012). Evaluating childhood adversity. Advances in Psychosomatic Medicine 32, 35–57.Google Scholar
Thompson, AD, Nelson, B, Yuen, HP, Lin, A, Amminger, GP, McGorry, PD, Wood, SJ, Yung, AR (2014). Sexual trauma increases the risk of developing psychosis in an ultra high-risk “prodromal” population. Schizophrenia Bulletin 40, 697–706.Google Scholar
Trull, TJ, Sher, KJ, Minks-Brown, C, Durbin, J, Burr, R (2000). Borderline personality disorder and substance use disorders: a review and integration. Clinical Psychology Review 20, 235–253.Google Scholar
Tyrka, AR, Burgers, DE, Philip, NS, Price, LH, Carpenter, LL (2013). The neurobiological correlates of childhood adversity and implications for treatment. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 128, 434–447.Google Scholar
Van Dam, NT, Rando, K, Potenza, MN, Tuit, K, Sinha, R (2014). Childhood maltreatment, altered limbic neurobiology, and substance use relapse severity via trauma-specific reductions in limbic gray matter volume. JAMA Psychiatry 71, 917–925.Google Scholar
Varese, F, Smeets, F, Drukker, M, Lieverse, R, Lataster, T, Viechtbauer, W, Read, J, van Os, J, Bentall, RP (2012). Childhood adversities increase the risk of psychosis: a meta-analysis of patient-control, prospective- and cross-sectional cohort studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin 38, 661–671.Google Scholar
Weinberger, DR (1987). Implications of normal brain development for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 44, 660–669.Google Scholar
Widom, CS, DuMont, K, Czaja, SJ (2007). A prospective investigation of major depressive disorder and comorbidity in abused and neglected children grown up. Archives of General Psychiatry 64, 49–56.Google Scholar
Wykes, T, Huddy, V, Cellard, C, McGurk, SR, Czobor, P (2011). A meta-analysis of cognitive remediation for schizophrenia: methodology and effect sizes. American Journal of Psychiatry 168, 472–485.Google Scholar
Yung, AR, McGorry, PD, McFarlane, CA, Jackson, HJ, Patton, GC, Rakkar, A (1996). Monitoring and care of young people at incipient risk of psychosis. Schizophrenia Bulletin 22, 283–303.Google Scholar
Yung, AR, Phillips, LJ, McGorry, PD, McFarlane, CA, Francey, S, Harrigan, S, Patton, GC, Jackson, HJ (1998). Prediction of psychosis. A step towards indicated prevention of schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 172, 14–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yung, AR, Yuen, HP, McGorry, PD, Phillips, LJ, Kelly, D, Dell'Olio, M, Francey, SM, Cosgrave, EM, Killackey, E, Stanford, C, Godfrey, K, Buckby, J (2005). Mapping the onset of psychosis: the Comprehensive Assessment of At-Risk Mental States. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 39, 964–971.Google Scholar
Zanarini, MC, Frankenburg, FR, Reich, DB, Hennen, J, Silk, KR (2005). Adult experiences of abuse reported by borderline patients and Axis II comparison subjects over six years of prospective follow-up. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 193, 412–416.Google Scholar
Zanarini, MC, Yong, L, Frankenburg, FR, Hennen, J, Reich, DB, Marino, MF, Vujanovic, AA (2002). Severity of reported childhood sexual abuse and its relationship to severity of borderline psychopathology and psychosocial impairment among borderline inpatients. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 190, 381–387.Google Scholar
Zielinski, DS (2009). Child maltreatment and adult socioeconomic well-being. Child Abuse & Neglect 33, 666–678.Google Scholar
Zlotnick, C, Johnson, DM, Yen, S, Battle, CL, Sanislow, CA, Skodol, AE, Grilo, CM, McGlashan, TH, Gunderson, JG, Bender, DS, Zanarini, MC, Shea, MT (2003). Clinical features and impairment in women with Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), BPD without PTSD, and other personality disorders with PTSD. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 191, 706–713.Google Scholar