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² Bishop, Patrick The Irish empire (London, 1999);Google Scholar The Irish empire [TV series] R.T.É./B.B.C., 2000.

³ Jeffrey, Keith (ed.) An Irish empire?: aspects of Ireland and the British Empire (Manchester, 1996);Google Scholar Kinealy, Christine ‘At home with the empire: the example of Ireland’ in Hall, Catherine and Rose, Sonya O. (eds), At home with the empire: metropolitan culture and the imperial world (Cambridge, 2006), p. 96.Google Scholar See Miller, Kerby A. ‘Re-imagining Irish revisionism’ in Wyndham, Andrew Higgins (ed.), Re-imagining Ireland (London, 2006), pp 223–13Google Scholar for strong criticism of this ‘Irish empire’ concept.

⁴ Fitzpatrick, David ‘Ireland and the empire’ in Porter, Andrew (ed.), The Oxford history of the British Empire, iii: The nineteenth century (Oxford, 1999), pp 519–20;Google Scholar Fitzpatrick, David Irish emigration 1801–1921 (Dundalk, 1984), p. 17;Google Scholar Kenny, Kevin ‘The Irish in the empire’ in Kenny, Kevin (ed.), Ireland and the British Empire (Oxford, 2004), pp 113–14;Google Scholar O’Farrell, Patrick The Irish in Australia (Kensington, N.S.W., 1986), p. 240;Google Scholar MacDonagh, Oliver (ed.), Emigration in the Victorian age: debates on the issue from 19th century critical journals (Farnborough, 1973);Google Scholar McCaffrey, Lawrence J. ‘Irish textures in American Catholicism’ in Catholic Historical Review, 76, no. 1 (Jan. 1992), p. 1;Google Scholar McCaffrey, Lawrence J. The Irish Catholic diaspora in America (Washington, 1997), p. 98.Google Scholar

¹ Miller, Kerby A. Emigrants and exiles. Ireland and the Irish exodus to North America (Oxford, 1985), pp 455–6;Google Scholar Schrier, Arnold Ireland and the American emigration, 1850–1900 (Minnesota, 1958), p. 65;Google Scholar Daly, Mary E. The new failure: population decline and independent Ireland, 1922–1973 (London, 2006), p. 261;Google Scholar Carey, Hilary M. ‘Religion and society’ in Schreuder, Deryck Marshall and Ward, Stuart (eds), Australia’s empire (Oxford, 2008), p. 195.Google Scholar

⁶ Miller, Kerby A. ‘Ideology and identity in post-Famine Ireland’ in Studies: an Irish Quarterly, 75, no. 300 (Winter, 1986), pp 520–1;Google Scholar Miller, , Emigrants and exiles, pp 302,Google Scholar 458–9, 532–3.

⁷ Rafferty, Oliver P. ‘The Catholic Church and the British Empire 1800–1921’ in Historical Research, 84 (2011), pp 288–309 CrossRefGoogle Scholar at p. 6; Akenson, Donald Harman Half the world from home: perspectives on the Irish in New Zealand 1860–1950 (Wellington, 1990), pp 163–1;Google Scholar Barr, Colin ‘“Imperium in Imperio”: Irish episcopal imperialism in the nineteenth century’ in English Historical Review, 108, no. 502 (June 2008), pp 611–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar As Rory Sweetman has recently noted in relation to New Zealand, however, the argument that Irish immigrants needed Irish bishops did not always wash: Sweetman, Rory ‘Paul Cullen and the remaking of Catholicism in the Antipodes’ in Keogh, Dáire and McDonnell, Albert (eds), Cardinal Paul Cullen and his world (Dublin, 2011), pp 377–400.Google Scholar

⁸ Kiberd, Declan Inventing Ireland: the literature of the modern nation (London, 1996), p. 276;Google Scholar O’Farrell, , Irish in Australia, p. 240;Google Scholar O’Farrell, Patrick Ireland’s English question: Anglo-Irish relations 1534–1970 (London, 1971), pp 23540;Google Scholar Doyle, David Noel ‘Small differences? The study of the Irish in the United States and Britain’ in I.H.S., 29, no. 113 (May 1994), p. 118;Google Scholar Fennell, Desmond The state of the nation. Ireland since the sixties (Dublin, 1983), p. 72.Google Scholar P. A. Sheehan, ‘The effect of emigration on the Irish church’ in I.E.R,, 3rd series, iii (Oct. 1882), pp 603–14.

⁹ Gilley, Sheridan ‘The Roman Catholic Church and the nineteenth-century Irish diaspora’ in Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 35, no. 2 (Apr. 1984), pp 188–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar See also Gilley, Sheridan ‘Catholicism, Ireland, and the Irish diaspora’ in Gilley, Sheridan and Stanley, Brian (eds), World Christianities c. 1815–1914 (Cambridge, 2006), pp 250–9;Google Scholar Gilley, Sheridan ‘Catholicism in Ireland’ in McLeod, Hugh and Ustorf, Werner (eds), The decline of Christendom in western Europe, 1750–2000 (Cambridge, 2003), pp 99–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar See also Whelan, Irene ‘Religious rivalry and the making of Irish-American identity’ in Lee, J.J. and Casey, Marion R. (eds), Making the Irish American: history and heritage of the Irish in the United States (New York, 2006), pp 280–1;Google Scholar and, in reference to Irish-Australian visions of a spiritual empire, O’Farrell, Patrick The Catholic church and community: an Australian history (3rd rev. ed., Kensington, N.S.W., 1992), pp 194–297.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Kiberd, , Inventing Ireland, p. 276.Google Scholar

¹¹ Reeve, Carl and Reeve, Ann Barton James Connolly and the United States: the road to the 1916 Irish rebellion (Atlantic Highlands, 1978), p. 173;Google Scholar Freeman’s Journal (hereafter F.J.) 28 Apr. 1864.

¹² Maguire, John Francis The Irish in America (London, 1868);Google Scholar Davin, Nicholas Flood The Irishman in Canada (London, 1877);Google Scholar Hogan, James Francis The Irish in Australia (London, 1888);Google Scholar Fahy, F.A. and O’Donoghue, D.J. Ireland in London (Dublin, 1889);Google Scholar Cleary, P.S. Australia’s debt to Irish nation-builders (Sydney, 1933).Google Scholar

¹³ Moran, Patrick Francis The pastoral letters and other writings of Cardinal Cullen, archbishop of Dublin (3 vols, Dublin, 1882),Google Scholar i, 624; F.J., 14 Aug. 1879.

¹⁴ Evidence cited in Maguire, John Francis Father Mathew: A biography (London, 1865), p. 304.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Brownson, Orestes A. ‘Father Thébaud’s Irish race’ in Brownson, Orestes A. and Brownson, Henry Francis (eds), The works of Orestes A. Brownson (1884), p. 560.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Burke, Thomas Nicholas Lectures on faith and fatherland (Glasgow, [1874]), p. 212.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Collins, Kevin Catholic churchmen and the Celtic revival in Ireland, 1848–1916 (Dublin, 2002), pp 60–79;Google Scholar Moran, Patrick F. Essays on the origin, doctrines and discipline of the early Irish church (Dublin, 1864);Google Scholar Moran, Patrick F. Irish saints in Great Britain (Dublin, 1879);Google Scholar Haverty, Martin The history of Ireland, ancient and modern (Dublin, 1867), pp 91–106;Google Scholar Gougaud, Louis Gaelic pioneers of Christianity: the work and influences of Irish monks and saints in continental Europe (Dublin, 1923).Google Scholar The pages of O’Connell’s, Daniel Dublin Review Google Scholar also routinely referred to the work of the monks. See for example Anon., , ‘Notice of new books’ in Dublin Review, 3, no. 5 (July 1837), p. 270.Google Scholar

¹⁸ F.J., 13 Sept. 1878.

¹⁹ [James,] Gibbons, Cardinal ‘Irish immigration to the United States’ in I.E.R., 4th series, 1 (Feb. 1897), p. 109.Google Scholar

²⁰ F.J., 30 May 1850.

²¹ Phelan, Michael ‘The supernatural destiny of the Irish race’ in The Austral Light, new series, 10, no. 6 (June 1909), p. 405;Google Scholar Catholic Telegraph, 15 Mar. 1862.

²² Zwierlein, Frederick J. The life and letters of Bishop McQuaid (3 vols, New York, 1925), 1,Google Scholar 116.

²³ Thébaud, Augustus The Irish race in the past and the present (New York, 1873), pp 439–40.Google Scholar

²⁴ Wall, Maureen ‘The decline of the Irish language’ in Cuív, Brian Ó (ed.), A view of the Irish language (Dublin, 1969), p. 87;Google Scholar Chríost, Diarmait MacGiolla The Irish language from Goídel to globalization (London, 2004), p. 101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁵ Weekly Telegraph, 9 Dec. 1854.

²⁶ Annals of All Hallows (1862), p. 31.

²⁷ Phelan, , ‘The supernatural destiny of the Irish race’, p. 407.Google Scholar

²⁸ Newman, John Henry The office and work of universities (London, 1859), p. 224.Google Scholar

²⁹ O’Farrell, , Ireland’s English question, pp 235–7.Google Scholar

³⁰ Anon., , ‘The patriotism of Irish Catholicity’ in Irish Monthly, 15 (1887), pp 669–70.Google Scholar

³¹ Dineen, P.S. ‘The world-wide empire of the Irish race: A plea for its organisation’ in Journal of the Ivernian Society, 2, no. 6 (Jan. 1910), pp 79–94;Google Scholar see also O’Connor, Michael The sogarth aroon, or, the Irish priest: a lecture (Baltimore, 1869), p. 21;Google Scholar Handlin, Oscar Boston’s immigrants, 1790–1880: a study in acculturation (Cambridge, 1959), pp 185–6.Google Scholar

³² The Tablet, 2 Oct. 1852; F.J., 20 Sept. 1852.

³³ F.J., 16 Jan. 1864.

³⁴ O’Connor, M[ichael] ‘The destiny of the Irish race’ in I.E.R., 1 (Nov. 1864), p. 72.Google Scholar

³⁵ F.J., 23 Oct. 1863.

³⁶ O’Connor, , ‘The destiny of the Irish race’, p. 84.Google Scholar

³⁷ Thébaud, Irish race, p. 81. The Egyptian reference, ostensibly a biblical allusion, may well relate to the ‘Milesian’ myth.

³⁸ Dineen, , ‘The world-wide empire of the Irish race’, p. 83.Google Scholar The ‘loose union’ of political and (this time Catholic) religious interests can also be observed in the contemporaneous French empire: see Daughton, J.P. An empire divided: religion, republicanism and the making of French colonialism, 1880–1914 (Oxford, 2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³⁹ Sheehan, Canon [P. A.] Early essays and lectures (London, 1906), pp 269–70.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Sheehan, , ‘The effect of emigration on the Irish church’, p. 611.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Weekly Telegraph, 26 Mar. 1853.

⁴² Miller, Kerby A. ‘“Revenge for Skibbereen”: Irish emigration and the meaning of the great famine’ in idem, Ireland and Irish America, p. 66.Google Scholar

⁴³ DrCullen, [Paul] Pastoral letter to the Catholic clergy and laity of the diocese of Dublin, on the festival of St Patrick (Dublin, 1853), p. 28.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Gilley, , ‘Catholic Church and the diaspora’, pp 206–7.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ F.J., 2 Jan. 1852.

⁴⁶ M. P. Riordan, Waterford to Kirby, 30 Mar. 1847 (Irish College Rome Archive (I.C.R.A.), Kirby papers, KIR/1847/545).

⁴⁷ George Commins to Kirby, 19 June 1863 (Ibid., KIR/1863/170).

⁴⁸ T. W. Croke to Kirby, 8 Apr. 1864 (Ibid., KIR/1864/82).

⁴⁹ F.J., 19 Sept. 1839; Anon., , ‘Transatlantic travelling’ in Dublin Review, 7 (Nov. 1839) , p. 327.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ F.J., 30 Jan. 1841.

⁵¹ MacHale, John ‘Ireland’ in Annals of the Propagation of the Faith, 3, no. 13 (Jan. 1840) , p. 74.Google Scholar

⁵² Daunt, W.J.O’Neill Personal recollections of the late Daniel O’Connell, M.P. (2 vols, London, 1848), 1,Google Scholar 293.

⁵³ Anon, , ‘Ancient Irish missions on the continent’ in Duffy’s Irish Catholic Magazine: A monthly review, 1 (Apr. 1847), pp 67–9;Google Scholar Farrell, Joseph Sermons (Dublin, 1895), pp 17–18, 245.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Perraud, , Ireland, pp 241–2.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Shaughnessy, Gerald Has the immigrant kept the faith? A study of immigration and Catholic growth in the United States 1790–1920 (New York, 1925).Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Sheehan, , ‘The effect of emigration on the Irish church’, pp 612–13.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Morgan, James Thoughts on the famine, its author, cause and remedy (Belfast, 1847).Google Scholar See also Gray, Peter ‘National humiliation and the great hunger: fast and famine in 1847’ in I.H.S., 32, no. 126 (Nov. 2000), pp 203–9.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ The Tablet, 29 Aug. 1846, 20 Feb. 1846.

⁵⁹ It should be noted that a later rector of the Irish College Rome, Monsignor Michael O’Riordan, could dismiss all Protestant claims of the Famine as the work of Providence as hypocritical because coming from ‘those who were most responsible for it’, while he nonetheless viewed the subsequent emigration as divinely providential: MacSuibhne, Peadar Paul Cullen and his contemporaries (5 vols, Naas, 1965),Google Scholar iii, 353–4.

⁶⁰ Anon., , ‘Emigration considered with reference to its influence on the spread of Catholicity’ in The Rambler: a Catholic journal and review of home and foreign literature, politics, science, music and the fine arts, 6, no. 66 (June 1853), p. 466;Google Scholar F.J., 30 May 1850; F.J., 29 Mar. 1850.

⁶¹ Quigley, Hugh The cross and the shamrock: or, how to defend the faith. An Irish-American Catholic tale of real life, descriptive of the temptations, sufferings, trials, and triumphs of the children of St Patrick in the great republic of Washington (Boston, 1853), p. 124;Google Scholar Fanning, Charles The Irish voice in America: 250 years of Irish-American fiction (Lexington, 1999), p. 142.Google Scholar It is worth pointing out here that Irish clergy and bishops at home and abroad, though they clearly shared a sense of pride in an ‘Irish spiritual empire’, could hotly dispute ownership of that empire’s subjects. This was never more obvious than in the competition for offerings between the Irish-American church and travelling Irish priests. See Roddy, Sarah ‘The spoils of spiritual empire: emigrant contributions to nineteenth-century Irish Catholic church-building’ in Journal of Irish and Scottish Studies, 5, no. 2 (Spring, 2012), pp 93–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁶² Sheehan, P.A. The graves at Kilmorna (Dublin, 1915), p. 338;Google Scholar Fitzpatrick, David Oceans of consolation: personal accounts of Irish migration to Australia (Cork, 1995), p. 553.Google Scholar

⁶³ O’Leary, John Recollections of Fenians andFenianism (2 vols, London, 1896), ii,Google Scholar 31.

⁶⁴ Irish People, 21 May 1864.

⁶⁵ Rafferty, Oliver P. The church, the state and the Fenian threat 1861–75 (Basingstoke, 1999), p. 64;Google Scholar Irish Canadian, 18 Mar. 1863, Canadian Freeman, 19 Mar., 1863, The Globe, 18 Mar. 1863; as cited in Cottrell, Michael ‘St. Patrick’s day parades in nineteenth-century Toronto: A study of immigrant adjustment and elite control’ in Iacovetta, Francesca Draper, Paula and Ventresca, Robert (eds), A nation of immigrants: women, workers, and communities in Canadian history, 1840s–1960s (Toronto, 1998), p. 36;Google Scholar Irish Canadian 22 Mar. 1871 as cited in McGowan, Mark G. ‘Roman Catholics (Anglophone and Allophone)’ in Bramadat, Paul and Seljak, David (eds), Christianity and ethnicity in Canada (Toronto, 2008), p. 54;Google Scholar F.J., 22 May 1871; F.J., 3 Dec. 1873; F.J., 14 Aug. 1878.

⁶⁶ See Stortz, G.J. ‘Archbishop Lynch and New Ireland: an unfulfilled dream for Canada’s Northwest’ in Catholic Historical Review, 68, no. 4 (Oct. 1982), pp 612–24Google Scholar for Lynch’s later attempt to put his views into practice. For similar themes see Spalding, John Lancaster The religious mission of the Irish people and Catholic colonization (New York, 1880).Google Scholar

⁶⁷ F.J., 5 Sept. 1864.

⁶⁸ O’Leary to Kirby, 28 July, 1865 (I.C.R.A., Kirby papers, KIR/1865/172). Similar rejection of the idea came in the wake of the 1880s peak of emigration. See John Riordan in F.J., 15 Aug. 1884; P. O’Connell, Chicago to Croke, 10 June 1887. (Cashel Diocesan Archives (C.D.A.), Croke papers, 1887/21: microfilm, N.L.I., p6010–6013).

⁶⁹ F.J., 25 July 1862.

⁷⁰ F.J., 6 Mar. 1865.

⁷¹ The bishop of Galway told Cullen early in 1863 that on the cessation of the American Civil War, ‘at least one half of the population of this county will emigrate’, though clearly an upswing occurred regardless: McEvilly to Cullen, 20 Jan. 1863 (D.D.A., Cullen papers, 340/7/I/9). It is worth noting, however, that the obvious physical dangers posed to emigrants by the war appear to have troubled Irish bishops much less than the moral and spiritual dangers of which Lynch warned. See Cullen to Moran, 20 May 1864 (D.D.A., Cullen papers, outgoing letter book 121/5); Cullen to Charles Langdon, 1 July 1865 (D.D.A., Cullen papers, outgoing letter book 121/4).

⁷² Dozens of letters from Irish bishops in the Kirby collection dated between 1863 and 1865 refer to the renewed exodus. Most are from the prelates of western and southern dioceses, from where most emigration was emanating, but Cullen and Dixon of Armagh also mention it, the former regularly. Larkin has quoted this correspondence extensively: Larkin, Emmet The consolidation of the Roman Catholic Church in Ireland, 1860–1870 (Dublin, 1987), pp 101–5,Google Scholar 282–7.

⁷³ Larkin, ibid., p. 287.

⁷⁴ Ibid., p. 276; Norman, E.R. The Catholic Church and Ireland in the age of rebellion 1859–1873 (New York, 1965), p. 387.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ Ibid., p. 148.

⁷⁶ Leahy to Kirby, 27 Mar. 1863 (I.C.R.A., Kirby papers, KIR/1863/101). Leahy was clearly wrong about the religious make-up of those emigrating; as Donald Akenson has persuasively argued, Protestants were always ‘at least as large a proportion [of the outflow] as they were of the home population’: Akenson, D.H. The Irish diaspora: a primer (Belfast, 1993), p. 52.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Catholic Telegraph, 20 June 1863.

⁷⁸ Norman, , Catholic Church, p. 409.Google Scholar

⁷⁹ Guinnane, Timothy The vanishing Irish: households, migration and the rural economy (Chichester, 1997), pp 238–9;Google Scholar Sermon preached at the consecration of the Right Rev. Dr Moran, coadjutor bishop of Ossory, in the Metropolitan Church of Dublin on the 5th of March, 1872 by the most Rev. Dr Leahy (Dublin, 1872) (C.D.A., Leahy papers, 1872/13: microfilm, N.L.I., p6010–6013).

⁸⁰ O’Leary, , Fenians & Fenianism, 2, 36.Google Scholar

⁸¹ Judge they have. See Steele, E.D. ‘Cardinal Cullen and Irish nationality’ in I.H.S., 19, no. 75 (Mar. 1975), pp 239–60;Google Scholar Boyce, D. George Nationalism in Ireland (London, 1995), p. 180;Google Scholar Kerr, Donal A. ‘A nation of beggars’? Priest, people and politics in famine Ireland, 1846–1852 (Oxford, 1994), p. 325;Google Scholar Norman, , Catholic Church, pp 10, 426;Google Scholar Bowen, Desmond Paul Cardinal Cullen and the shaping of modern Irish Catholicism (Dublin, 1983), pp 272–81;Google Scholar O’Carroll, Ciaran Paul Cardinal Cullen: portrait of a practical nationalist (Dublin, 2008).Google Scholar For an excellent recent exploration of the issue, see Kelly, Matthew ‘Providence, revolution and the conditional defence of the union: Paul Cullen and the Fenians’ in Keogh, and McDonnell, , Cardinal Paul Cullen and his world, pp 308–28.Google Scholar

⁸² Bew, Paul Ireland: the politics of enmity 1789–2006 (Oxford, 2007), p. 257.Google Scholar

⁸³ Paul, Bowen Cardinal Cullen, p. 297.Google Scholar See, particularly, pastorals printed in the Weekly Telegraph, 2 May 1863; F.J., 30 Apr. 1866; F.J., 27 Jan. 1868.

⁸⁴ Larkin, , Consolidation, p. 282.Google Scholar If that was the case, it might be explained by the fact that, as Cullen noted to Kirby, ’The emigration from Munster & from Connaught is very great -scarcely anyone is going away from this diocese. This country was cleared one hundred years ago.’ Cullen to Kirby, 11 Dec., 1863 (I.C.R.A., Kirby papers, KIR/1863/322).

⁸⁵ Cullen to Kirby, 15 Apr. 1864 (I.C.R.A., Kirby papers, KIR/1864/86).

⁸⁶ Cullen to Moran, 20 May 1864 (D.D.A., Cullen papers, outgoing letter book 121/5).

⁸⁷ Cullen to Kirby, 27 Apr. 1860 (I.C.R.A., Kirby papers, KIR/NC/1/1860/34).

⁸⁸ Cullen to Kirby, 29 Sept. 1864 (I.C.R.A., Kirby papers, KIR/1864/178); Cullen to Kirby, 7 Jan. 1868 (I.C.R.A., Kirby papers, KIR/1868/11).

⁸⁹ Donal McCartney and David Steele each credit O‘Connell with popularising the idea: Steele, David ‘Daniel O’Connell, Cardinal Cullen and expatriate nationalism’ in McCartney, Donal (ed.), The world ofDaniel O’Connell (Dublin, 1980), pp 88–99;Google Scholar McCartney, Dona The dawning of democracy: Ireland 1800–1870 (Dublin, 1987), p. 163.Google Scholar

⁹⁰ MacHale, John A refutation of the earl of Shrewsbury’s calumnies against the Catholic clergy and bishops of Ireland (Dublin, 1848), p. 22;Google Scholar F.J., 24 Feb. 1847.

⁹¹ Barr, Colin Paul Cullen, John Henry Newman, and the Catholic University of Ireland, 1845–1865 (Leominster, 2003), p. 154;Google Scholar MacHale, John The splendid oration delivered by the most reverend Dr MacHale, Abp of Tuam, at the opening of the second session of the national synod of Ireland, on Thursday, August 29th, 1850 (Dublin, 1850), p. 12;Google Scholar F.J., 8 June 1854.

⁹² Cullen to Kirby, 25 June, 1842 (I.C.R.A., Kirby papers, KIR/1842/98).

⁹³ Larkin, , Consolidation, pp 284–5.Google Scholar [The letter is originally in Italian.]

⁹⁴ Ibid., pp 282-3. Larkin sees this letter as Cullen ‘cover[ing] the exposed Roman flank’ in light of Lynch having in effect ‘report[ed] the Irish bishops to the Pope for not making greater temporal efforts on behalf of their people’. That may be too dramatic an interpretation. Criticism of the Irish hierarchy in the pamphlet itself is muted, though Lynch was more cutting in a letter to Kirby: Lynch to Kirby, 12 May 1864 (I.C.R.A., Kirby papers, KIR/1864/96). In any case, Cullen’s response to Lynch was a note of genuine thanks for his ‘valuable letter’: Cullen to Lynch, 13 May 1864 (D.D.A., Cullen papers, outgoing letter book 121/4).

⁹⁵ Stortz, Gerald J. ‘Archbishop Lynch’s The evils of wholesale and improvident emigration from Ireland’ (1864)’ in Eire-Ireland, 18, no. 2 (Summer, 1983), p. 15.Google Scholar

⁹⁶ F.J., 19 Oct. 1864. Cullen repeated these sentiments privately in a letter to his niece Margaret in 1870 when he wrote ‘religion has gained by the sufferings which our poor people have had to undergo at home’: MacSuibhne, , Paul Cullen, 5, 36.Google Scholar

⁹⁷ See also Cullen to Moran, 5 June 1864 (D.D.A., Cullen papers, outgoing letter book, 121/5); Cullen to Spalding, 2 Nov. 1864 (D.D.A., Cullen papers, outgoing letter book 121/4).

⁹⁸ F.J., 27 Nov. 1863; Leahy, Sermon preached at the consecration of the Right Rev. Dr Moran, 1872 (C.D.A., Leahy papers, 1872/13: microfilm, N.L.I., p6010–6013).

⁹⁹ This was Fr Robert Mullen’s letter published in The Tablet, 10 Apr. 1852; DrCullen, Pastoral letter to the Catholic clergy and laity of the diocese of Dublin, on the fast of lent, 1853 (Dublin, 1853).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁰ See Cullen to Sisters of Mercy, Rathdrum, F.J., 16 Sept. 1867.

¹⁰¹ MacSuibhne, , Paul Cullen, iii, 247–8.Google Scholar

¹⁰² See Roddy, ‘The spoils of spiritual empire’.

¹⁰³ Barr, ‘“Imperium in Imperio’”,passim. See also Molony, John N. The Roman mould of the Australian Catholic Church (Carlton, 1969),Google Scholar passim and O’Farrell, Catholic church and community, pp 212–19 for earlier discussion of the influence of an Irish-filtered Romanism in the Australian Catholic Church.