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The Rockite movement in County Cork in the early 1820s

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 March 2016

Shunsuke Katsuta
Shunsuke Katsuta*
Affiliation:
Faculty of Education, Gifu University, Japan
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Extract

Chronic rural disturbances have featured prominently in the modern history of Ireland. In particular, the period from the 1760s to the 1830s witnessed frequent and widespread disturbances, ranging over several counties and lasting for years. The disturbers — contemporaries sometimes called them ‘Whiteboys’ — were often sworn into secret societies which operated at night under the command of a mythical leader, known variously as Captain Right, Captain Steel or Captain Rock. Historical scholarship has shed light on many of these disturbances. However, the Rockites in the south of Ireland in the early 1820s remain somewhat mysterious. Although this was the only instance of rural unrest in Munster in the early 1820s, the Rockite movement nonetheless constituted one of the most extensive and serious rural disturbances in Ireland before the Famine. Five regiments of troops were dispatched from Britain, ‘for the purpose of putting down actual, & most formidable Danger in Ireland’, as the home secretary admitted. The Insurrection Act, with its curfew at night and trial without jury, was introduced into eight counties, and in its first year the act brought to trial more than 1,500 men in Munster, of whom more than 200 were convicted and transported. In County Cork, where the movement was at its most formidable, open engagements between thousands of the Rockites and the military occurred in several places, while incendiarism prevailed to an extent unprecedented in the history of Irish agrarian disturbances. The special commissions appointed in February 1822, specifically to try Rockites in the county, convicted thirty-six men of capital crimes.

Type
Research Article
Information
Irish Historical Studies , Volume 33 , Issue 131 , May 2003 , pp. 278 - 296
Copyright
Copyright © Irish Historical Studies Publications Ltd 2003

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References

1 Lord Sidmouth to Lord Talbot, 23 Oct. 1821 (P.R.O., HO 100/201/154); Sidmouth to Talbot, 8 Nov. 1821 (ibid., HO 100/202/55-6).

2 Insurrection Act, Ireland. Returns from the clerks of the crown, H.C. 1823 (311), xvi, 687-95.

3 J. S. Townsend to Under-Secretary Gregory, 23 Feb. 1822 (N.A.I., State of the Country papers (henceforth S.O.C.), 2344/58).

4 Donnelly, J. S. jr, ‘Pastorini and Captain Rock: millenarianism and sectarianism in the Rockite movement of 1821-4’ in Clark, Samuel and Donnelly, J.S. jr, (eds), Irish peasants: violence and political unrest, 1780-1914 (Manchester, 1983), pp 106-7.Google Scholar

5 The Chief Secretary’s Office Registered Papers (henceforth C.S.O., R.P.) in N.A.I. contain papers which are specifically concerned with the state of the country in the 1820s but which are uncalendared. Most of series II of the S.O.C. is also uncalendared. In this article individual documents in these two uncalendared (and hence little-used) series are referred to by box number, description and date.

6 Limerick Chronicle, 28 July, 1 Aug. 1821.

7 Chief Secretary Grant to H. Bateman, 19 Jan. 1820 (N.A.I., Private Official Correspondence, letter-book 421); Dublin Evening Post, 9 Oct. 1821; see also letters in N.A.I., S.O.C., 2185/51.

8 Gregory to Grant, n.d. (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2185/51).

9 Brigade-Major Croker to Gregory, 6 Oct. 1821 (ibid., C.S.O., R.P., box 631); G. Bruce to Croker, 7 Nov. 1821 (ibid., S.O.C., 2293/20).

10 C. O’Leary to G. Bruce, 7 Oct. 1821 (ibid., S.O.C., 2296/16); Rev. T. Allen to C. O’Leary, 20 Oct. 1821 (ibid., C.S.O., R.P., box 633); W. Allen to Grant, 25 Oct. 1821 (ibid., S.O.C., 2293/13).

11 W. Allen to Grant, 22 Aug. 1821 (ibid., C.S.O., R.P., box 630).

12 R. Aldworth to Gregory, 24 Oct. 1821 (ibid., S.O.C., 2293/12).

13 C. O’Leary to R. Aldworth, 16 Oct. 1821 (ibid., S.O.C., 2293/8).

14 Compiled from N.A.I., S.O.C.; ibid., C.S.O., R.P.; Cork Morning Intelligencer; Cork Constitution.

15 Brigade-Major Mahony to Lt-Col. Turner, 19 Aug. 1821 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2295/3); Major Warburton to Gregory, 7 Oct. 1821 (ibid., C.S.O., R.R. box 638); Cork Morning Intelligencer, 18, 22 Sept. 1821.

16 R. Leslie to Grant. 15 Sept. 1821 (N.A.I., C.S.O., R.P., box 634).

17 Major Willcocks and Major Warburton to Grant, 23 Oct. 1821 (P.R.O., HO 100/202/25).

18 Grant to Sidmouth, 25 Nov. 1821 (ibid., HO 100/202/201-4); list of the districts under the Peace Preservation Force (N.A.I., S.O.C., 23751/22).

19 Talbot to Sidmouth, 24 Nov. 1821 (P.R.O., HO 100/202/197-8); Grant to Sidmouth, 24 Dec. 1821 (ibid., HO 100/202/385-6).

20 H. Clive to Grant, 6 Dec. 1821 (ibid., HO 100/202/316-17).

21 Major-Gen. Aylmer to Military Secretary, 29 Nov. 1821 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2293/31).

22 Cork Morning Intelligencer, 16 Apr. 1822; Limerick Chronicle, 10 July, 16, 23 Oct. 1822; Cork Constitution, 5 Aug. 1822; information of H. Goold, 10 July 1823 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2517/47).

23 R. Griffith to Chief Secretary Goulburn, 27 Aug. 1823 (N.A.I., C.S.O., R.P., 1823/6466); evidence of R. Griffith (Minutes of evidence taken before the select committee appointed to inquire into the disturbances in Ireland…, pp 225-41, H.C. 1825 (20), vii, 225-41).

24 W. Allen to R. Griffith, 22 Jan. 1822 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2342/58).

25 Information of T. McCarthy, 19 Dec. 1821 (ibid., S.O.C., box 170).

26 Major Carter to T. McCarthy, 16 Jan. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2342/38).

27 Contained in an account book (ibid., C.S.O., R.P., box 634). See Major Stewart to Gregory, 20 Oct. 1821 (ibid., C.S.O., R.P., box 636).

28 T. Hunt to Gregory, 16 Dec. 1821 (ibid., C.S.O., R.P., box 633).

29 Evidence of W. H. W. Newenham (Minutes of evidence taken before the select committee of the House of Lords … into the disturbances … in those districts of Ireland … now subject to the … Insurrection Act, p. 185, H.L. 1825 (200), vii, 685).

30 Information of J. Slattery, 22 Mar. 1822 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2355/60).

31 J. Delmege to Gregory, 29 Nov. 1821 (ibid., C.S.O., R.P., box 632).

32 [Dublin Castle?] to Sidmouth, 11 Jan. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., box 170).

33 Cork Morning Intelligencer, 10, 12, 15 Jan. 1822; Waterford Mirror, 23 Jan. 1822.

34 Cork Morning Intelligencer, 26 Jan. 1822.

35 Lord Bantry to Goulburn, 22 Jan. 1822 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2342/60); Major-Gen. Lambert to Military Secretary, 24 Jan. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2343/13); M. O’Sullivan to J. Browne, 24 Jan. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., box 170); Dublin Evening Post, 26 Jan. 1822.

36 Major Carthew to Major-Gen. Lambert, 21 Jan. 1822 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2343/5); J. Gillman to Goulburn, 25 Jan. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2343/12).

37 R. O. C. Newenham to Gregory, 24 July 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2346/17).

38 Cork Morning Intelligencer, 7 Feb. 1822.

39 For the accounts in newspapers see ibid., 26, 29, 31 Jan., 19, 21, 26 Feb., 5 Mar. 1822; Limerick Chronicle, 26, 30 Jan., 2, 13 Feb. 1822; Waterford Mirror, 2, 4, 9 Feb. 1822; Dublin Evening Post, 29, 31 Jan., 5 Feb. 1822.

40 Lt-Col. Mitchell to Major-Gen. Lambert, 24 Jan. 1822 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2343/5).

41 Major Darcy to Col. Broke, 24 Jan. 1821 (ibid., S.O.C., 2343/23).

42 J. Barry to Lord Wellesley, 27 Apr. 1822 (ibid., C.S.O., R.P., 1822/515); Cork Constitution, 23 Aug. 1822, 22 Aug. 1823.

43 A. Bernard and Lord Carbery to Major-Gen. Lambert, 25 Jan. 1822 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2343/23).

44 E. McCarty to Goulburn, 25 Jan. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2343/8).

45 Lt-Col. Mitchell to Col. Broke, 25 Jan. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2343/23).

46 R. Day to C. Tod, 26 Jan. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2348/24); C. D. Oliver to Goulburn, 27 Jan. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2348/26).

47 Rev. J. E. Orpen to C. D. Oliver, 25 Jan. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2343/6). See also J. Craster to Col. Gough, [26?] Jan. 1822 (P.R.O., HO 100/203/168).

48 Captain Keappock to Col. Gough, 25 Jan. 1822 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2343/31); W. Allen to Col. Straton, 26 Jan. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2343/42); Major Carter to Goulburn, 28 Jan. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2343/25).

49 For example, see Captain Stephenson to Major-Gen. Lambert, 26 Jan. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2343/23).

50 A. Hill to Goulburn, 26 Jan. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2343/22); W. H. W. Newenham to A. Hill, 1 July 1823 (ibid., S.O.C., 2514/1).

51 Rev. R. Herbert to Gregory, 28 Jan. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2348/27).

52 T. Busteed to Rev. R. Herbert, 26 Jan. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2348/25).

53 Waterford Mirror, 17 Aug. 1822; see also Limerick News, 4 Mar. 1822.

54 Limerick Chronicle, 30 Jan. 1822; Cork Morning Intelligencer, 31 Jan. 1822.

55 Evidence of Rev. J. Kiely (Minutes of evidence taken before the select committee … to inquire into the state of Ireland …, pp 318-21, H.L. 1825 (521), ix, 318-21).

56 Major Willcocks to Gregory, 25 Feb. 1822 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2350/82); G. Ray to Gregory, 28 Mar. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2349/25).

57 Connolly, S. J., ‘The “blessed turf”: cholera and popular panic in Ireland, June 1832’ in I.H.S., xxiii, no. 91 (May 1983), pp 214-32.Google Scholar

58 Rev. J. Orpen to [E.] Orpen, 2 Feb. 1822 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2344/8).

59 Major-Gen. Aylmer to Military Secretary, 8 Dec. 1821 (ibid., C.S.O., R.P., box 636); Major-Gen. Lambert to Military Secretary, 13 Jan. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2342/30).

60 Brigade-Major Mahony to Goulburn, 25 Jan. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2343/9).

61 J. D. Freeman to Gregory, 31 Mar. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2345/50); Gregory to Freeman, 4 Apr. 1822 (ibid., Private Official Correspondence, letter-book 422).

62 C. O’Leary to Gregory, 1 Feb. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2344/6); Waterford Mirror, 2, 4 Feb. 1822; J. Leader to J. Lloyd, 4 Mar. 1822 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2345/13).

63 Wellesley to Peel, 3 Jan. 1822 (P.R.O., HO 100/203/10-16).

64 3 Geo. IV, c. 1; 3 Geo. IV, c. 103.

65 Gregory to Goulburn, 22 Mar. 1822 (Surrey History Centre, Goulburn papers, 304/69).

66 Cork Constitution, 6 Nov. 1822.

67 Major-Gen. Lambert to Military Secretary Lt-Col. Sorell, [26?] Sept. 1822 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2346/69).

68 Col. Gough to Military Secretary Lt-Col. Sorell, 15 Sept. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2346/51); Gough to Sorell, 1 Oct. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2347/3); Gough to Military Secretary Lt-Col. Finch, 11 Jan. 1823 (ibid., S.O.C., 2511/6).

69 The relief committees returned the numbers of people in hardship. I have calculated the rate of distress by dividing the reported numbers by the population figures in the 1821 census. For the reports see Cork Constitution, June-July 1822. For the distress of southern parishes see Cork Morning Intelligencer, 4 June 1822.

70 Cited in Cormac Ó Gráda, Ireland: a new economic history, 1780-1939(Oxford, 1994), p. 56.Google Scholar

71 Compiled from Cork Morning Intelligencer, Cork Constitution; Limerick Chronicle; N.A.I., S.O.C.; ibid., C.S.O., R.P. Only those cases have been counted in which the particulars were reported.

72 Col. Gough to Military Secretary Lt-Col. Finch, [24?] Nov. 1823 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2516/25).

73 Col. Gough to Military Secretary Lt-Col. Finch, 12 Apr. 1823 (ibid., S.O.C., 2512/18).

74 Brie, Maurice J., ‘The tithe system in eighteenth-century Ireland’ in R.I.A. Proc, lxxxvi (1986), sect. C, p. 273.Google Scholar

75 W. Dunn to Maurice J. Brie, 3 Dec. 1821 (N.A.I., C.S.O., R.P., box 632).

76 Lord Ennismore to Gregory, 17 Feb. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2344/44); Major Carter to Gregory, 13 June 1823 (ibid., S.O.C., 2513/67).

77 Donnelly, J. S. jr, ‘The social composition of agrarian rebellions in early nineteenth-century Ireland: the case of the Carders and Caravats, 1813-16’ in Corish, P. J. (ed.), Radicals, rebels and establishments: Historical Studies XV (Belfast, 1985), pp 154-5.Google Scholar

78 Brie, Maurice J., ‘Priests, parsons, and politics: the Rightboy protest in County Cork, 1785-8’ in Philpin, C. H. E. (ed.), Nationalism and popular protest in Ireland (Cambridge, 1987), p. 184.Google Scholar

79 Dickson, David, ‘An economic history of the Cork region in the eighteenth century’ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Trinity College Dublin, 1977), pp 323-5Google Scholar; Rev. J. Black-wood to David Dickson, 30 Aug. 1814 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 1553/16).

80 Compiled from Cork Constitution; Cork Morning Intelligencer; N.A.I., S.O.C.; ibid., C.S.O., R.P. Some may have been committed by proprietors themselves in order to gain compensation: see Col. Gough to Military Secretary Lt-Col. Sorell, 31 Oct. 1822 (ibid., C.S.O., R.P., 1822/2654).

81 Evidence of Rev. W. O’Brien (Report from the select committee on the state of Ireland, pp 586-7, H.C. 1825 (129), viii, 586-7).

82 A. Hill to Col. Gough, 12 Dec. 1822 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2347/53); Cork Constitution, 16 Dec. 1822.

83 Lord Doneraile to A. Hill, 2 Apr. 1823 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2512/3); Col. Arbuthnot to Military Secretary Lt-Col. Finch, 2 Apr. 1823 (ibid., S.O.C., 2512/3).

84 Major Carter to Gregory, 8 Mar. 1823 (ibid., S.O.C., 2511/43); Major-Gen. Lambert to Field-Marshal Combermere, 1 Apr. 1823 (ibid., S.O.C., 2512/5).

85 J. McCarthy to Gregory, 3 July 1823 (ibid., S.O.C., 2514/4).

86 Cork Constitution, 5 May 1823; J. Browne to Gregory, 5 June 1823 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2513/55).

87 Lord Doneraile to M. Blacker, 22 Apr. 1825 (N.A.I., C.S.O., R.P. 1825/11210); Cullen, L. M., ‘The Blackwater Catholics and County Cork society in the eighteenth century’ in O’Flanagan, Patrick and Buttimer, C. G. (eds), Cork: history and society: interdisciplinary essays on the history of an Irish county (Dublin, 1993), pp 551-60.Google Scholar

88 Confession of Nagle, [23?] Aug. 1823 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2514/55).

89 Major Carter to Gregory, 8 May 1824 (ibid., S.O.C., 2615/23); Col. Gough to Military Secretary Lt-Col. Finch, [24?] May 1824 (ibid., S.O.C., 2615/28).

90 Enclosed ibid., S.O.C., 2345/28.

91 Ibid. ‘3d article of … law’ was a favourite term of the Rockites of this region: see the four notices enclosed ibid., S.O.C., 2515/39.

92 Mainly ibid., S.O.C., 2514/55, 2614/1, 2615/23.

93 Col. Gough to Military Secretary Lt-Col. Finch, 24 Feb. 1824 (ibid., S.O.C., 2614/42); Gough to Finch, 3 May 1824 (ibid., S.O.C., 2615/21); see also letters ibid., C.S.O., R.P., 1824/10851. For corroboration see information of P. Kelleher, 26 Sept. 1823 (ibid., S.O.C., 2515/35).

94 Major Carter to Gregory, 8 Mar. 1823 (ibid., S.O.C., 2511/43); Cork Constitution, 4 Apr. 1823; confession of Nagle, c. 1824 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2614/1).

95 W. H. W. Newenham to Major Carter, 13 Apr. 1823 (N.A.I. S.O.C., 2512/16). Hickey’s account was reportedly corroborated by another informer’s intelligence: evidence of W. H. W. Newenham (Minutes of evidence taken before the select committee of the House of Lords … into the disturbances … in those districts of Ireland … now subject to the … Insurrection Act, p. 184, H.L., 1825 (200), vii, 684); cf. evidence of Rev. W. O’Brien (Report from the select committee on the state of Ireland, pp 584-6, H.C. 1825 (129), viii, 584-6).

96 Cork Constitution, 9 June 1823; Cork Mercantile Chronicle, 9 June 1823; Major Maxwell to Sergeant Torrens, 11 July 1823 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2514/14).

97 Major Maxwell to Gregory, 28 Feb. 1823 (ibid., S.O.C., 2511/37).

98 Col. Gough to Military Secretary Lt-Col. Finch, 5 Mar. 1823 (ibid., S.O.C., 2511/41).

99 Major Carter to Gregory, 21 Mar. 1823 (P.R.O., HO 100/208/91); Hickey’s letter, [16?] Apr. 1823 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2512/25).

100 E. Hutchinson to Grant, 15 Nov. 1821 (N.A.I., C.S.O., R.P., box 633).

101 Major Carter to Goulbum, 9 Nov. 1823 (ibid., S.O.C., 2516/6).

102 See above, n. 95.

103 Dickson, David, New foundations: Ireland, 1660-1800 (revised ed., Dublin, 2000), pp 217-18Google Scholar; Donnelly, J. S. jr, ‘Propagating the cause of the United Irishmen’ in Studies, lxix (1980), p. 20.Google Scholar

104 Bartlett, Thomas, The fall and rise of the Irish nation: the Catholic question, 1690-1830 (Dublin, 1992), pp 268, 296, 311-26.Google Scholar

105 W. C. Collins to Goulburn, 10 Dec. 1821 (N.A.I., C.S.O., R.P., box 631).

106 Cullen, L. M., The emergence of modern Ireland, 1600-1900 (London, 1981), p. 199.Google Scholar

107 Gregory to Peel, 22 Jan. 1823 (B.L., Peel papers, Add. MS 40334, ff 27-8).

108 Bartlett, Fall & rise of the Irish nation, pp 308, 310.

109 F. Hely-Hutchinson to Lord Donoughmore, 2, 5 Apr. 1821 (T.C.D., Donough-more papers, D/48/184-5).

110 Limerick Chronicle, 28 Mar. 1821; Dublin Evening Post, 29 Mar., 3, 5, 7, 10 Apr. 1821; Daniel O’Connell to his wife, 23 Mar., 2 Apr. 1821 (The correspondence of Daniel O’Connell, ed. O’Connell, M. R. (8 vols, Dublin, 1972-80), iii, 311, 312).Google Scholar

111 Major Carter to Gregory, 21 Mar. 1823 (P.R.O., HO 100/208/91-6). See also above, n. 95.

112 See above, n. 27.

113 N.A.I., S.O.C., 2345/52; Cork Constitution, 24 Mar. 1823, 23 Sept. 1824.

114 See above, n. 95.

115 See above, nn 97-9.

116 J. McCarthy to Gregory, 10 Aug. 1823 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2514/4); information of J. Walsh, 13 Jan. 1824 (ibid., S.O.C., 2614/13).

117 J. Church to J. Walsh, 30 Nov. 1821 (ibid., C.S.O., R.P., box 631). ‘To join the French’ appeared also in the oaths around Tralee and Ballyheige in Kerry (Limerick Chronicle, 29 Dec. 1821).

118 J. Connery to E. Johnston, 5 June 1822 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2345/77); A. Keily to Gregory, 19 June 1823 (ibid., C.S.O., R.P., 1823/6590). Major Carter had some doubts about this informer, but not about this case (Carter to Goulburn, 27 Nov. 1823 (ibid., S.O.C., 2516/32)).

119 C. O’Leary to Carter, 1 Feb. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2344/6); O’Leary to C. O’Leary, 3 Mar. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2345/7).

120 Information of J. Houlahan, no. 12, [Mar?] 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2349/22); Barrington to Gregory, 14 Aug. 1822 (ibid., S.O.C., 2349/54).

121 Limerick Chronicle, 27 Feb. 1822; Limerick News, 28 Feb. 1822.

122 Brigade-Major Croker to Peel, 28 Sept. 1813 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 1544/79).

123 Ó Coindealbháin, Seán, ‘The United Irishmen in Cork County — IV: Mallow and mid-Cork’ in Cork Hist. Soc. Jn., lv (1950), pp 73–90.Google Scholar

124 White, James Grove, An account of the Yeomanry of Ireland, 1796 to 1834 (Cork, 1893), p. 17Google Scholar; Bartlett, Fall & rise of the Irish nation, p. 230.

125 Hansard 1, xxxiv, 676 (21 May 1816); xxxvi, 439 (9 May 1817).

126 Dublin Evening Post, 25 June 1818; Limerick Evening Post, 2 July 1818.

127 Daniel O’Connell to his wife, 19 Mar. 1820 (O’Connell corr., ed. O’Connell, iii, 245-6).

128 Dublin Evening Post, 23, 30 Mar. 1820.

129 Army: Yeomanry and Volunteers. A return of the number of troops or corps … so far as relates to Ireland, p. 4, H.C. 1821 (306), xix, 180.

130 O’Connell, Basil, ‘The Nagles of Annakissy’ in Ir. Geneal, ii, no. 11 (1954), p. 343.Google Scholar

131 Rev. W. O’Brien to Brigade-Major Mahony, 14 Apr. 1823 (Surrey History Centre, Goulburn papers, 304/71).

132 Wellesley, lord lieutenant of Ireland.

133 Cork Constitution, 21 May 1823.

134 In N.A.I., S.O.C. and C.S.O., R.P. are recorded numerous proposals to that effect from local magistrates to Dublin Castle.

135 Goulburn to Peel, 26 Jan. 1822 (P.R.O., HO 100/203/120-21).

136 Beames, M. R., ‘The Ribbon societies: lower-class nationalism in pre-Famine Ireland’ in Philpin, (ed.), Nationalism & popular protest in Ireland, pp 245-63Google Scholar; Tom Garvin, ‘Defenders, Ribbonmen and others: underground political networks in pre-Famine Ireland’, ibid., pp 219-44.

137 Diary of Major Sirr, 27 Oct., 11 Nov. 1821 (T.C.D., Sirr papers, 869/3); Limerick Chronicle, 15 Mar. 1823; Cork Constitution, 26 Mar. 1824; R. Peppard to Goulburn, 7 Dec. 1824 (N.A.I., C.S.O., R.P., 1824/10438).

138 Grant to Major Willcocks, 15 Nov. 1821 (Emory University, Gregory papers, 624/13/8).

139 Diary of Major Sirr, 12 Feb. 1821 (T.C.D., Sirr papers, 869/3); Talbot to Sidmouth, 4 Nov. 1821 (P.R.O., HO 100/202/9); Major Warburton to Grant, 12, 24 Nov. 1821 (N.A.I., C.S.O., R.P., box 637).

140 Evidence of Major Warburton (Minutes of evidence taken before the select committee of the House of Lords … into the disturbances … in those districts of Ireland … now subject to the … Insurrection Act, pp 84-5, H.L. 1825 (200), vii, 584-5; Minutes of evidence taken before the select committee appointed to inquire into the disturbances in Ireland …, pp 135-6, H.C. 1825 (20), vii, 135-6); information of J. Hickey, 16 Sept. 1820 (N.A.I., S.O.C., box 169); diary of Major Sirr, 9 Dec. 1821 (T.C.D., Sirr papers, 869/3); Report of the trial of Michael Keenan for administering an unlawful oath (Dublin, 1822), pp 41-5.

141 Diary of Major Sirr, 27 Oct., 5, 11 Nov. 1821 (T.C.D., Sirr papers, 869/3).

142 For example, Col. Arbuthnot to Military Secretary Lt-Col. Finch, 23 June 1823 (N.A.I., S.O.C., 2513/79); Arbuthnot to Finch, 6 July 1823 (ibid., S.O.C., 2514/8).

143 Wellesley to Peel, 28 Jan. 1824 (P.R.O., HO 100/210/13-19).

144 I am deeply grateful to Louis Cullen, David Dickson and Kazuhiko Kondo for their assistance and encouragement in the preparation of this article