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‘A real revolution’: Ireland and the Oxford Group/Moral Re-Armament movement, 1933–2001

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 January 2022

Bernadette Whelan
Bernadette Whelan*
Affiliation:
University of Limerick
*
*Department of History, University of Limerick, [email protected]
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Abstract

During the twentieth century, Ireland, north and south, was infiltrated to varying degrees by a transnational quasi-religious and political movement, Moral Re-Armament (M.R.A.). From its founding in the early 1920s by an American evangelist and former Lutheran pastor, Frank Buchman, through the peak of moral revivalism in the 1930s, its Cold War work after 1945 and its reinvention as a secular, multi-faith, reconciliation organisation in the 1960s, this article examines M.R.A.'s structural and ideological origins and its evolution in Ireland, the U.S. and Britain. Based on primary source materials, it argues that Ireland, characterised by two ideologically narrow cultural and political monoliths, was not immune to external spiritual and quasi-political influences and that M.R.A.'s activities in Ireland confirm these distinctive religious and political cultures while also revealing similarities. Moreover, it reveals that non-governmental M.R.A. adherents were in advance of governments in their desire for peaceful solutions to the Irish partition issue and the Cold War more generally. The article, therefore, examines an international movement which had personal, national and global significance within the context of transnational religious, political and foreign policy studies as well as the national narratives of Northern Ireland and Ireland.

Type
Research Article
Information
Irish Historical Studies , Volume 45 , Issue 168 , November 2021 , pp. 262 - 281
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Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Irish Historical Studies Publications Ltd

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Footnotes

Telford to Buchman, 11 Aug. 1936 (Bodl., Oxford Group records (henceforth Bodl., O.G.R.), MS 2/149).

References

2 Riberi to McQuaid, 11 Nov. 1960 (Dublin Diocesan Archives, John Charles McQuaid papers (henceforth D.D.A., McQuaid papers), Xxi/86/4).

3 According to Ronan Fanning, the 1948–51 government pursued the ‘most cringingly servile and sickeningly obsequious Catholic foreign policy in the history of the state’: Irish Independent, 22 Nov. 2014.

4 Mark Hulsether, ‘Review’ in American Studies, li, no. 1/2 (spring/summer 2010), pp 126–8.

5 Eunan O'Halpin, ‘Endword: Ireland looking outwards, 1880–2016’ in Thomas Bartlett (ed.), The Cambridge history of Ireland: vol. iv, 1880 to the present Cambridge, 2020), pp 834–5.

6 Elizabeth Arweck, ‘Buchman, Frank, Nathaniel, Daniel (1878–1961)’, O.D.N.B.

7 Hannon, David, Gordon Hannon! Some parson – some man (Belfast, 2004)Google Scholar; Arweck, ‘Buchman’, p. 4; H. J. Nilsen, ‘Moral Re-Armament as network movement’ (transl. Aug. 2011), Initiatives of Change (https://www.iofc.org/M.R.A.-history-nilsen) (18 Nov. 2019); Wilson, B. R., Religious sects (London, 1970)Google Scholar; D. C. Belden, ‘The origins and development of the Oxford Group (Moral Re-Armament)’ (D.Phil. thesis, Oxford University, 1976), pp 392–406; Sack, Daniel, Moral Re-Armament: the reinvention of an American religious movement (New York, 2009), p. 3CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Parkin, Frank, Middle class radicalism: the social bases of the British Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (Manchester, 1968)Google Scholar; Dick B., Anne Smith's journal 1933–1939. A.A.'s principles of success (3rd ed., Mauwi, Hawaii, 1989), pp 89–90, 141–5; Irish Times, 5 Mar. 2005.

8 Belden, ‘The origins’, abstract.

9 Lean, Buchman, p. 1; Arweck, ‘Buchman’, pp 3–4; Kariuki, J. Mwangi, Mau Mau detainee (London and Nairobi, 1963)Google Scholar; Gathogo, J. M., ‘Nahashon Ngare Rukenya and the Moral Re-Armament in Kenya: the turning point and the post Mau-Mau war Reconstruction (1959–1970)’ in Studia Historiae Ecclesiasticae, xliv, no. 2 (2018), pp 1–16Google Scholar.

10 See Boobbyer, Philip, The spiritual vision of Frank Buchman (Philadelphia, 2013)Google Scholar.

11 Lean, Garth, Frank Buchman: a life (Edinburgh, 1985), p. 1Google Scholar; quoted in Lean, Buchman, p. 239; Arweck, ‘Buchman’, pp 3–4.

12 Driberg, Tom, The mystery of Moral Re-Armament: a study of Frank Buchman and his movement (London, 1964)Google Scholar; Saunders, Frances Stonor, Who paid the piper? The CIA and the cultural Cold War (London, 1999), pp 150–51Google Scholar.

13 Belden, ‘The origins’, pp 392–3.

14 Lean, Buchman, p. 1.

15 Arweck, ‘Buchman’, p. 2.

16 Ibid., p. 4.

17 Eister, A. W., Drawing room conversion: a sociological account of the Oxford Group movement (Durham, 1950)Google Scholar.

18 Arweck, ‘Buchman’, p. 3. Nabob, originating in British India, came to be widely applied in English-speaking contexts as a wealthy person in authority.

19 Arweck, ‘Buchman’, pp 1, 4.

20 Williamson, Geoffrey, Inside Buchmanism. An inside inquiry into the Oxford Group movement and Moral Re-Armament (London, 1954), p. 223Google Scholar.

21 Belden, ‘The origins’, appendix III, pp iii–v.

22 ‘Cavalcade of Moral Re-Armament in Ireland’ (Lib. Congress, Moral Re-Armament records, 1812–1991, MSS56671 (henceforth Lib. Congress, M.R.R.), box 316).

23 Ibid.; Sack, Moral Re-Armament.

24 Belden, ‘The origins’, appendix II, p. i; ‘Cavalcade of Moral Re-Armament in Ireland’ (Lib. Congress, M.R.R., box 316).

25 Irish Christian Advocate, 19 Oct. 1934.

26 Hannon, Gordon Hannon, p. 55.

27 Irish Christian Advocate, 19 Oct. 1934.

28 Belden, ‘The origins’, p. 223.

29 Irish Christian Advocate, 19 Oct. 1934; Belden, ‘The origins’, p. 248.

30 Irish Christian Advocate, 19 Oct. 1934.

31 ‘An Ulster House Party of The Oxford Group’, 9–15 Oct. 1934 (Lib. Congress, M.R.R., Raymond Foote Purdy papers (henceforth R.F.P.), box 249).

32 Irish Christian Advocate, 19 Oct. 1934.

33 Belfast Telegraph, 4 Oct. 1934.

34 Irish Christian Advocate, 19 Oct. 1934.

35 Ibid., 19 Oct. 1934; ‘Attendance sheet’ (Lib. Congress, M.R.R., R.F.P., box 249).

36 Irish Christian Advocate, 19 Oct. 1934; Jessie Anderson to Mrs Crawford, 17 Apr. 1935 (P.R.O.N.I., correspondence of Colonel F. H. Anderson and family, 1750–1960 (henceforth P.R.O.N.I., C.A.), D1700/5/6/28); note on Grand Central Hotel, Belfast notepaper (Bodl., O.G.R., file 3.1115, 1934–5).

37 Irish Christian Advocate, 19 Oct. 1934.

38 Walter Duff to Aunt Duff, 19 Oct. 1934; Walter Duff to Uncle Bob [Robert], 21 Oct. 1934 (P.R.O.N.I., Ellison Spence papers, D/2481/1/3/15).

39 David Forster, ‘Ulster and World Revival. The Oxford Group’, p. 4 (Lib. Congress, M.R.R., R.F.P., box 249); Irish Christian Advocate, 19 Oct. 1934.

40 See Sack, Moral Re-armament.

41 McBride, Ian, ‘Religion’ in Bourke, Richard and McBride, Ian (eds), The Princeton history of modern Ireland (Princeton and Oxford, 2016), pp 309–10Google Scholar; Jackson, Alvin, ‘Loyalists and unionists’ in idem (ed.), The Oxford handbook of modern Irish history (Oxford, 2014), pp 48, 55CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mitchel, Patrick, Evangelicalism and national identity in Ulster, 1921–1998 (Oxford, 2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hempton, David and Hill, Myrtle, Evangelical Protestantism in Ulster society, 1740–1890 (London, 1992), p. 160Google Scholar; Garland, Roy, ‘Protestant fears & Civil Rights: self-fulfilling conspiracies?’ in History Ireland, xvi, no. 5 (Sept./Oct 2008), p. 31Google Scholar.

42 Belden, ‘The origins’, p. 227.

43 ‘Moral Re-Armament (Irish Bulletin)’, 16 Oct. 1941, 1942 (Lib. Congress, M.R.R., Frank Buchman papers 1873–1960 (henceforth F.B.P.), box 142); ‘Report’, 27 Nov. 1934 (Bodl., O.G.R., file 3.1115).

44 Diarmaid Ferriter, The transformation of Ireland, 1900–2000 (London, 2005), p. 408.

45 Irish Independent, 16 May 1933.

46 Hannon, Gordon Hannon, pp 114, 98, 99, 100; Patrick Maume, ‘Stewart, Kenneth, Donald’, D.I.B.

47 Nationalist and Leinster Times, 4 Feb. 1934.

48 ‘Moral Re-Armament (Irish Bulletin)’, 16 Oct. 1941, 1942 (Lib. Congress, M.R.R., F.B.P., box 142); ‘Reports’ 27 Nov. 1934 (Bodl., O.G.R., file 3.1115).

49 Telford to Twitchell, 22 Nov. 1934 (Bodl., David Telford papers (henceforth D.T.P.), O.G. 2/149); Hannon, Gordon Hannon, pp 101, 114.

50 ‘Cavalcade of Moral Re-Armament in Ireland. 1938/39’ (Lib. Congress, M.R.R., box 316).

51 Telford to Twitchell, 22 Nov. 1934 (Bodl., O.G.R., D.T.P., O.G. 2/149); Enclosure in Telford to Buchman, 30 Apr. 1936 (ibid.).

52 Telford to Buchman, 18 Dec. 1935 (ibid.).

53 Irish Press, 9 Apr. 1936; Hannon, Gordon Hannon, pp 101, 114.

54 Telford to Buchman, 18 Dec. 1935 (Bodl., O.G.R., D.T.P., O.G. 2/149).

55 Ibid.; Telford to Buchman, 30 Apr. 1936 (ibid.).

56 Enclosure in Telford to Buchman, 30 Apr. 1936 (ibid.).

57 Irish Press, 18 July 1936.

58 Telford to Buchman, 11 Aug. 1936 (Bodl., O.G.R., D.T.P., O.G. 2/149).

59 Irish Press, 15 Sept. 1936; Irish Independent, 16 Sept. 1936.

60 Telford to Buchman, 11 Aug. 1936 (Bodl., O.G.R., D.T.P., O.G. 2/149); Irish Press, 20 Oct. 1936.

61 Telford to Buchman, 21 Dec. 1936 (Bodl., O.G.R., D.T.P., O.G. 2/149); Irish Ecclesiastical Record, xlviii, fifth series (July–Dec. 1936), pp 635–43.

62 Telford to Buchman, 26 Jan. 1937 (Bodl., O.G.R., D.T.P., O.G. 2/149); [Catholic] Standard, 22 Jan. 1937.

63 Telford to Buchman, 26 Jan. 1937 (Bodl., O.G.R, D.T.P., O.G. 2/149).

64 Ibid.

65 Telford to Twitchell, 18 Feb. 1937 (ibid.).

66 Irish Independent, 17 May 1937.

67 See papers of Archbishop Edward Byrne, 1921–40 (D.D.A.).

68 Telford to Buchman, 24 Apr. 1937 (Bodl., O.G.R., D.T.P., O.G. 2/149); Irish Rosary xli (4 Apr. 1937), pp 241–4.

69 Evening Herald, 9 July 1937; Telford to Buchman, 20 July 1937 (Bodl., O.G.R., D.T.P., O.G. 2/149).

70 Telford to Buchman, 28 Dec. 1937 (Bodl., O.G.R., D.T.P., O.G. 2/149); John Gregg, archbishop of Dublin to Telford, 24 Dec. 1937 (ibid.).

71 Telford to Buchman, 15 Oct. 1938 (ibid.).

72 Telford to Twitchell, 18 Feb. 1937 (ibid.).

73 Quoted in Hannon, Gordon Hannon, p. 74.

74 Sack, Moral Re-Armament, pp 85–6, 93–6.

75 J. P. Thornton-Duesbury, The open secret of M.R.A.: an examination of Mr Driberg's ‘critical examination’ of Moral Re-Armament (London, 1964), pp 62–6.

76 Mervyn O'Driscoll, Ireland, Germany and the Nazis. Politics and diplomacy, 1919–1939 (Dublin, 2007). There are no M.R.A. ties to individuals listed in either (a) ‘Registered Germans, Austrians and Czechs’, 1943 (N.A.R.A., War Department, Record Group 165, Office of Strategic Services, file 5940, box 1863) or (b) ‘G2 Intelligence Collection’, first release (Military Archives of Ireland, Department of Defence (henceforth M.A.I., D.D.)).

77 Hannon, Gordon Hannon, pp 78–9, 88–9.

78 Irish Press, 5 June 1939.

79 Los Angeles Times, 20 Aug. 1939; ‘Cavalcade of Moral Re-Armament in Ireland. July–December 1939’ (Lib. Congress, M.R.R., box 316).

80 Viney to McCullagh, 25 July 1939 (P.R.O.N.I., Town clerk's department, 1857–1953, LA/7/3/a/64).

81 ‘Cavalcade of Moral Re-Armament in Ireland. July–December 1939’ (Lib. Congress, M.R.R., box 316).

82 Ibid.; Evening Echo, 7 Aug. 1939; Irish Times, 19 Aug. 1939; Irish Press, 5 June 1939; Irish Times, 29 June 1939.

83 ‘Cavalcade of Moral Re-Armament in Ireland. December 1938–July 1939’; ‘July–December 1939’ (Lib. Congress, M.R.R., box 316); Irish Press, 21 Aug. 1939; Irish Times, 28 Aug. 1939.

84 (U.C.D.A., Éamon de Valera papers, P150; W. T. Cosgrave papers, P285); Dáil and Seanad Éireann online search (https://www.oireachtas.ie/en/debates/find/) (3 Mar. 2020).

85 Irish Press, 21 Aug. 1939.

86 Hannon, Gordon Hannon, p. 100.

87 Belden, ‘The origins’, p. 212; Evening Echo, 18 Jan. 1943; Belfast News Letter, 5 Feb. 1943.

88 Hannon, Gordon Hannon, pp 78–91; ‘Cavalcade of Moral Re-Armament in Ireland. July–December 1939’ (Lib. Congress, M.R.R., box 316).

89 ‘Information Please’, 7 June 1943 (Lib. Congress, M.R.R. F.B.P., box 142); Hannon, Gordon Hannon, p. 114.

90 ‘Cavalcade of Moral Re-Armament in Ireland. July–December 1939’ (Lib. Congress, M.R.R., box 316).

91 Hannon, Gordon Hannon, pp 90–91; Kerr to May, 21 Nov. 1939 (P.R.O.N.I., LA/7/3/a/64); Lord Mayor to Dean, 22 Nov. 1939 (P.R.O.N.I., LA/7/3/a/64); Montgomery and McElderry, 5 Dec. 1939 (P.R.O.N.I., LA/7/3/a/64).

92 ‘A call to our citizens’ (P.R.O.N.I., LA/7/3/a/64).

93 ‘Moral Re-Armament (Irish Bulletin)–December 1940’ (Lib. Congress, M.R.R., box 316); Oxford Group News, 16 Oct. 1941 (ibid.).

94 ‘Moral Re-Armament (Irish Bulletin)–December 1940’, (ibid.); Hannon, Gordon Hannon, p. 102.

95 Oxford Group News, 16 Oct. 1941 (Lib. Congress, M.R.R., F.B.P., box 316); ‘Moral Re-Armament (Irish Bulletin), Feb. 1941’ (ibid.).

96 The author is grateful to Dr Gisela Holfter for alerting me to this source. Gisela Holfter and Horst Dickel, An Irish sanctuary. German-speaking refugees in Ireland 1933–1945 (Berlin and Boston, 2017), pp 235, 266, 347; John Hennig quoted in Gisela Holfter and Hermann Rasche (eds), John Hennig: his life and work (Galway, 2004), pp 11–51, 59–61.

97 John Hennig quoted in Holfter & Rasche (eds), John Hennig, pp 11–51, 59–61.

98 ‘Moral Re-Armament (Irish Bulletin)’, Feb. 1941 (Lib. Congress, M.R.R., F.B.P., box 316).

99 ‘No 12’, 7 June 1943 (ibid.); ‘Irish House Party’, Mar. 1942, (ibid.).

100 ‘G2 Intelligence Collection’, first release, M.A.I, D.D.; See Jonathan Pile, Churchill's secret enemy (Raleigh, N.C., 2012).

101 Hannon, Gordon Hannon, pp 102–05, 111; ‘Moral Re-Armament (Irish Bulletin)’, Feb. 1941 (Lib. Congress, M.R.R., F.B.P., box 142); ‘Moral Re-Armament (Irish Bulletin)’, Mar. 1942 (ibid.).

102 Hannon, Gordon Hannon, pp 115, 117, 118, 121; ‘Oral history interview with T. Willard Hunter’, Truman Library (https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/oral-histories/huntertw) (21 Mar. 2020).

103 Hannon, Gordon Hannon, pp 123, 124, 130–33, Katelyn Hanna, ‘Saidie Patterson’ (https://www.herstory.ie/news/2019/9/10/saidie-patterson) (9 Jan. 2020); ‘Saidie Patterson, 1904–1985’ (https://www.acenturyofwomen.com/saidie-patterson/) (9 Jan. 2020); David Bleakley, Saidie Patterson: Irish peacemaker (Belfast, 1980).

104 Telford to Buchman, 22 June 1946 (Bodl., O.G.R., D.T.P., 2/149).

105 Ibid., 15 Jan. 1947.

106 Hannon, Gordon Hannon, p. 102. There is no information in the Éamon de Valera papers regarding Gordon Hannon or the O.G./M.R.A.: (https://www.ucd.ie/archives/t4media/p0150-devalera-eamon-descriptive-catalogue.pdf) (10 Jan. 2020); Lean to Costello, 13 June 1950 (N.A.I., Department of Taoiseach (henceforth N.A.I., TSCH) S14903A).

107 Hannon to Costello, 21 May 1948 (N.A.I., D.T., TSCH/S14903A).

108 Telegram, Senator Styles Bridges to Costello, 20 May 1948 (ibid.); McCauley to MacUgo, 26 May 1948 (ibid.).

109 Drafts, 28, 31 May 1948 (ibid.); Costello to Hannon, 2 June 1948 (ibid.).

110 See Hannon, Gordon Hannon, p. 136; Irish Times, 10 Jan. 1978; Dermot Keogh, Ireland and Europe 1919–1989: a diplomatic and political history (Cork and Dublin, 1990), p. 216; Miriam Hederman, ‘Irish attitudes to European integration 1948–61’ (Ph.D. thesis, Trinity College Dublin, 1981), p. 49; Cork Examiner, 15 May 1948.

111 Hannon, Gordon Hannon, p. 136; Bernadette Whelan, ‘Europe: aspects of Irish foreign policy, 1945–51’ (M.A. thesis, University College Cork, 1984), p. 252.

112 Lean to Costello, 13 June 1950, N.A.I., TSCH/S14903A; minutes, 11, 19 Sept. 1950 (ibid.).

113 ‘Report on Moral Re-Armament in the Danger Areas of Europe’, Oct. 1950 (ibid.).

114 Telford to Buchman, 6 Dec. 1948 (Bodl., O.G.R., D.T.P., 2/149); Hannon, Gordon Hannon, p. 136.

115 Irish Press, 1 Jan. 1951.

116 Hannon, Gordon Hannon, pp 141, 150–55; Philip Boobbyer, ‘Moral Re-Armament in Africa in the Era of Decolonisation’ in Brian Stanley (ed.), Missions, nationalism and the end of empire (Grand Rapids, MI, 2004), pp 212–36; Hannon to ‘Chief’, 8 May 1953 (N.A.I., D.T., S14903A).

117 De Valera to Hannon, 28 May 1953 (N.A.I., TSCH/S14903A); Moynihan to O'Connell, 14 July 1953 (ibid.); Minute Moynihan, 24 July 1953 (ibid.).

118 Hannon, Gordon Hannon, pp 158–77; ‘Gordon Hannon’ (http://athyeyeonthepast.blogspot.com/2014/02/gordon-hannon-and-death-of-john-hannon.html) (30Nov. 2019).

119 ‘Newsletter–Ireland’, 29 June 1957 (Lib. Congress, M.R.R., box 316). Lawrence William White, ‘Patterson, Saidie (Sarah)’, D.I.B.

120 Sack, Moral Re-Armament, p. 113; Cork Examiner, 9 Aug. 1961.

121 Irish Independent, 10 Dec. 1957.

122 Church Assembly Moral Re-Armament. A study of the movement prepared by the Social and Industrial Council of the Church Assembly (London, 1955), pp 44–5; Cork Examiner, 9 Aug. 1961.

123 Barry Flynn, Soldiers of folly: the IRA border campaign 1956–1962 (Cork, 2009).

124 Henry Patterson, Ireland's violent frontier: the border and Anglo-Irish relations during the Troubles (London, 2013), p. 13; ‘Belfast-Ireland’, 4 Sept. 1957 (Lib. Congress, M.R.R., box 316); Belfast Evening Telegraph, 3 Sept. 1957.

125 Belfast Evening Telegraph, 19 June 1957.

126 Patrick J. Little witness statement (M.A.I., B.M.H., W.S. 1769); Leon Ó Broin, Just like yesterday: an autobiography (Dublin, 1986), p. 169.

127 Sunday Press, 11 Oct. 1959.

128 Riberi to McQuaid, 11 Nov. 1960 (D.D.A., McQuaid papers, file Xxi/86/4).

129 Little to McQuaid, 12 Nov. 1960 (ibid., file Xxi/86/5); Mackay to Buchman, 27 Mar., 26 June 1960 (Bodl., O.G.R., file reporters 1947–60); O. P. Reafferty, ‘Augustin Bea: Scholar, teacher and cardinal’ (https://www.jesuit.org.uk/augustin-bea-scholar-teacher-cardinal) (1 Jan. 2020); K. Van der Pijl, Transnational classes and international relations (London, 1998), p. 122.

130 Little to McQuaid, 12 Nov. 1960 (D.D.A., McQuaid papers, file Xxi/86/5); McCauley to Cremin, 3 Nov. 1960 (N.A.I., TSCH/S14903A).

131 Taoiseach to External Affairs, 24 Oct. 1960 (N.A.I., TSCH/S14903A); McCauley to Cremin, 3 Nov. 1960 (ibid.); Cremin to Moynihan, 12 Nov. 1960 (ibid.).

132 Little to McQuaid, 12 Nov. 1960 (D.D.A., McQuaid papers, file Xxi/86/5).

133 McQuaid to Little, 2 Nov. 1960 (ibid., file Xxi/86/1).

134 Ideology and co-existence (Moral Re-Armament, 1959) (https://archive.org/details/TNM_Ideology_and_Co-Existence_-_Moral_Re-Armament_20180612_0145) (30 Dec. 2019); McQuaid to Little, 6 Nov. 1960 (D.D.A., McQuaid papers, file Xxi/86/2).

135 McQuaid to Riberi, 8 Nov. 1960 (D.D.A., McQuaid papers, file Xxi/86/3). McQuaid regarded the Rotary lay charitable organisation as a threat to Catholicism, unlike his predecessor, Archbishop Byrne: T. J. Morrissey, Edward J. Byrne 1872–1941. The forgotten archbishop of Dublin (Dublin, 2011), pp 242–3.

136 Little to McQuaid, 12 Nov. 1960 (D.D.A., McQuaid papers, file Xxi/86/5).

137 Riberi to McQuaid, 17 Nov. 1960 (ibid., file Xxi/86/6/1).

138 McQuaid to Riberi, 18 Nov. 1960 (ibid., file Xxi/86/6/1).

139 Roddy Evans, When I sensed the breath of God. A footnote in Anglo-Irish history (Belfast, 2007), p. 15.

140 Evening Herald, 8 Aug. 1961; Belden, ‘The origins’, p. 326; New York Times, 10 Aug. 1970; ‘Up with People’ (https://upwithpeople.org/discover/our-legacy/historical-timelime/) (1 Jan. 2020).

141 Hannon, Gordon Hannon, pp 158–77; ‘Gordon Hannon’ (http://athyeyeonthepast.blogspot.com/2014/02/gordon-hannon-and-death-of-john-hannon.html) (30 Nov. 2019); Margaret M. Scull, The Catholic Church and the Northern Ireland Troubles, 1968–1998 (Oxford, 2019), p. 27; ‘Obituary: Cardinal Cahal Daly’, Irish Times (https://www.irishtimes.com/news/obituary-cardinal-cahal-daly-1.851217) (1 Jan. 2020).

142 See Daly's comment in ‘New Book Published’ (https://www.ireland.anglican.org/news/259/the-story-of-any-parson) (13 Mar. 2020); Hannon, Gordon Hannon, p. 166.

143 ‘Saidie Patterson (1904–1985)’ (https://www.acenturyofwomen.com/saidie-patterson) (13 Mar. 2020).

144 Evans, When, pp 7, 20, 35.

145 Stokes to O'Brennan, 4 Sept. 1970 (N.A.I., TSCH/S14903B).

146 O'Tuama to Taoiseach, 6 July 1971 (ibid.); Government Information Bureau, 12 July 1971 (ibid.).

147 Lynch to Hillery, 14 July 1971 (ibid.).

148 Martin Melaugh, ‘A chronology of the violence’, CAIN Archive (https://cain.ulster.ac.uk/othelem/chron/ch71.htm) (21 Feb. 2020).

149 Nkomo to Lynch, 10 Aug. 1971 (N.A.I., TSCH/S14903B).

150 Burke to O'Dowd, 25 Aug. 1971 (ibid.).

151 Irish Times, 24 Feb., 12 Mar. 1997. Glencree works through personal healing and supporting peacebuilding initiatives including those for women and young adults: (https://www.glencree.ie) (1 Jan. 2020).

152 ‘Peter Hannon obituary’, The Guardian (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/may/16/peter-hannon-obituary) (14 Mar. 2020); Evans, When, pp 7, 20, 35.

153 P. M. Coupland, Brittania, Europa and Christendom: British Christians and European integration (Basingstoke and New York, 2006), p. 126.

154 The author wishes to thank Dublin Diocesan Archives for permission to publish material; Lisa Dolan, Head of Readers’ Services, M.A.I. for providing the ‘first release’ catalogue; and Dr John Logan, Brendan O'Malley and Mary O'Malley for their guidance. The author is also grateful to the anonymous readers for their constructive comments.