1 Shawe-Taylor was a little-known Galway landlord who sent a letter to the press advo cating a conference of landlord and tenant representatives. This led to the Land Conference, comprised of both tenant and landlord representatives, that sat over December/January 1902–3. Its recommendations formed the basis of the Wyndham Act, often regarded as the climax of the Conservative Party’s policy of constructive unionism.

2 Lyons, F.S.L., Ireland since the Famine (Glasgow, 1973), pp 218–19Google Scholar. For earlier versions of this, see Edmund Curtis, , A history of Ireland (6th ed., London, 1952), p. 389Google Scholar, and Beckett, J.C., The making of modern Ireland, 1600–1923 (London, 1969), pp 406–7.Google Scholar

3 Fergus Campbell, , Land and revolution: nationalist politics in the west of Ireland, 1891–1921 (Oxford, 2005), pp 8–84Google Scholar; idem, , ‘Irish popular politics and the making of the Wyndham Land Act, 1901–1903’ in Hist. Jn., xlv, no. 4 (2002), pp 755–73Google Scholar. The U.I.L. was founded in January 1898 by William O’Brien at Westport, County Mayo.

4 Campbell, , Land & revolution, p. 47.Google Scholar

5 Ibid., p. 84.

6 Some of these include Elizabeth Hooker, , who acknowledged that Russell commenced the compulsory-purchase movement of the period; unfortunately, she did not touch on the infuence of his campaign on the origins of the Wyndham Act: see Readjustments of agri cultural tenure in Ireland (North Carolina, 1938)Google Scholar. Pomfret, John E. was one of the earliest to identify the potential of T. W. Russell’s declaration in favour of compulsory purchase to unite Ireland in support of expropriating the landlords: see The struggle for land in Ireland, 1800–1923 (New York, 1969), pp 276–314Google Scholar. Catherine Shannon, identifed the fears that Russell’s campaign evoked not only for Irish landlords but for the offcial Ulster unionist party: see Arthur J. Balfour and Ireland, 1874–1922 (Washington, 1988), pp 82–135Google Scholar. Sally Warwick Haller, briefy acknowledged how Russell popularised compulsory purchase: see William O’Brien and the Irish Land War (Cork, 1990), pp 214–20Google Scholar. Philip Bull, briefy referred to the movement in Ulster in his study of the Irish land question: see Land, politics and nationalism: a study of the Irish land question (Dublin, 1996)Google Scholar.

7 Jackson, Alvin, The Ulster party: Irish unionists in the House of Commons, 1884–1911 (New York, 1989), p. 158Google Scholar; idem, , ‘Irish unionism and the Russellite threat, 1894–1906’ in I.H.S., xxv, no. 100 (Nov. 1987), pp 376–404Google Scholar.

8 See Ireland and the death of kindness: the experience of constructive unionism, 1890– 1905 (Cork, 1987), pp 171–2.

9 See Paul Bew, , Conflict and conciliation in Ireland, 1890–1910: Parnellites and radical agrarians (Oxford, 1987), pp 86–98Google Scholar, and James Loughlin, , ‘T. W. Russell, the tenant-farmer interest, and progressive unionism in Ulster, 1886–1900’ in Éire–Ireland, xxv, no. 1 (1996), pp 44–63Google Scholar; see also McKeown, Paschal A., ‘T. W. Russell: temperance orator, militant unionist missionary, radical reformer and political pragmatist’ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Queen’s University, Belfast, 1991)Google Scholar.

10 Russell, T.W., ‘The Irish land question: what remains to be done’ in Stead, W.T. (ed.), Coming men on coming questions (London, 1905), p. 2Google Scholar.

11 William Roulston, , ‘Landlordism and unionism in Tyrone, 1885–1910’ in Charles Dillon, and Jefferies, Henry A. (eds), Tyrone: history and society (Dublin, 2000), pp 741–64Google Scholar; see also Elizabeth Malcolm, , ‘Ireland sober, Ireland free’: drink and temperance in nineteenth-century Ireland (Dublin, 1986)Google Scholar.

12 Who’s who 1914: an annual biographical dictionary with which is incorporated ‘men and women of the time’ (London, n.d.).

13 Irish Times, 21 Sept. 1900. The Ulster custom was legalised by the 1881 land act. It gave tenants freedom to sell their interest in a holding, fxity of tenure as long as they paid their rent, and the right to a fair rent. The ‘three F s’ essentially recognised the dual ownership of land: see Connolly, S.J. (ed.), The Oxford companion to Irish history (2nd ed., Oxford, 2007), pp 568–9Google Scholar. Annuities were the annual repayments that tenant-purchasers had to make to the government to repay the loans they had received to purchase their holdings.

14 Gailey, , Ireland & the death of kindness, pp 225–6Google Scholar. Russellite candidates successfully contested by-elections in East Down in 1903 and North Fermanagh in 1903 against the offcial unionist party; indeed, in the 1906 election nine Russellite candidates stood in the province of Ulster. It is important to note that Ulster unionism was under threat from another dissident movement that was focused primarily on urban centres, unlike Russell’s campaign. Patrick Maume has outlined how dissatisfaction with the landlord leadership of unionism emerged in the form of the editor of the Irish Protestant, Lindsay Crawford, in Dublin, and T. H. Sloan in Belfast. Sloan successfully contested the South Belfast by-election of 1902 as an independent unionist: see Patrick Maume, , The long gestation: Irish nationalist life, 1891–1918 (Dublin, 1999), pp 42–3Google Scholar.

15 Northern Whig, 21 Sept. 1900.

16 Russell, T.W., ‘Ireland and Irish land once more’ in Fortnightly Review, lxix, no. 409 (Jan. 1901), p. 16Google Scholar. At Clogher, Russell had initially estimated the cost to be around £120̣million: see Irish Times, 21 Sept. 1900.

17 Irish Times, 21 Sept. 1900.

18 Russell, , ‘Ireland & Irish land once more’, pp 16–18.Google Scholar

19 Duke of Abercorn to Lord Clonbrock, 27 Sept. 1900 (N.L.I., Clonbrock papers, MS 35,781 (3)); Colonel Edward Saunderson to W. E. Mccartney, 21 Oct. 1900 (P.R.O.N.I., Elison Maccartney papers, D 3649/20/51). Colonel Saunderson, M.P. for North Armagh, was leader of the Irish Parliamentary Unionist Party and the chief landlord spokesman in the House of Commons.

20 The Times, 28 Sept. 1900. The Irish Landowners’ Convention was an organisation of landlords created in 1886 to defend landlord interests. For a more detailed description, see Terence Dooley, , The decline of the Big House in Ireland (Dublin, 2001), p. 304Google Scholar.

21 Campbell, , Land & revolution, p. 47Google Scholar.

22 Inspector general’s monthly report, Oct. 1900 (T.N.A. CO 904/71)Google Scholar.

23 Irish People, 8 Dec. 1900. Russell was well acquainted with nationalist issues such as the western question and evicted tenants. Prior to the establishment of the Congested Districts Board in 1891, Russell had recommended that the congested counties in the west of Ireland required separate attention and special legislation: see Russell, T.W., ‘The Irish land bill’ in Fortnightly Review, xlvii, no. 281 (May 1890), p. 640Google Scholar. Russell was in favour of utilising compulsory purchase to break up grasslands in the congested districts in order to redistribute the land among small farmers: see Hansard 4, xc, 1467–76 (13 Mar. 1901). In 1890 he condemned the conduct of the R.I.C. and emergency men during the Clongorey evictions near Naas, County Kildare, during which a number of houses were burnt: see New York Times, 25 Feb. 1890.

24 John Redmond to P. J. Kennedy, 1 Jan. 1901 (N.L.I., Redmond papers, MS 15240/2). Michael Davitt was in favour of land nationalisation, and was afraid that Russell’s compulsory-purchase scheme might dangerously increase the price of land: see Michael Davitt, , ‘Some suggestions for a fnal settlement of the land question (1902)’ in Carla King (ed.), Michael Davitt: collected writings, 1868–1906, volume 2 (Bristol, 2001), pp 21–2Google Scholar.

25 George Wyndham, to Balfour, A.J., 26 Nov. 1900 in Life and letters of George Wyndham, vol. ii, ed. Mackail, J.W. and Guy Wyndham, (London, n.d.), p. 410Google Scholar. A. J. Balfour led the Conservative Party in the House of Commons as his uncle, the Prime Minister, Lord Salisbury, operated his administration from the House of Lords.

26 Bull, , Land, politics & nationalism, p. 111Google Scholar.

27 Irish Times, 5 Jan. 1901.

28 Ibid., 21 Nov. 1900.

29 Ibid.

30 Ibid., 30 Nov. 1900.

31 Ibid.

32 Ibid.

33 George Wyndham, to his brother Guy, , 29 Nov. 1900, in Letters of George Wyndham, 1877–1913, ed. Guy Wyndham, (Edinburgh, 1915), p. 5Google Scholar.

34 George Wyndham, to Balfour, A.J., 26 Nov. 1900 in Letters of George Wyndham, vol. ii, ed. Mackail & Wyndham, p. 411Google Scholar.

35 George Wyndham, , ‘The Irish land question and the need for legislation’, 1901 (T.N.A., CAB 37/59/147), pp 4–5.Google Scholar

36 Irish Times, 4 Jan. 1901.

37 Ibid., 13 July 1901.

38 See Anonymous, , ‘Compulsory purchase’: a reply to Mr. T. W. Russell (Dublin, 1901)Google Scholar and idem, , ‘Compulsory purchase’ in Ireland: fve speeches made by Mr. T. W. Russell M.P. (Dublin, 1901)Google Scholar. The frst pamphlet attempted to discredit Russell and his ideas concerning compulsory purchase. The second was concerned with portraying him as inconsistent by printing copies of speeches he had given in the late 1880s and early 1890s when he had spoken against the idea of compulsory purchase.

39 Cosby, Dudley S.A., The Irish land problem and how to solve it: a defence of the Irish landlords (London, 1901), pp 58–87Google Scholar. Dudley was the son of Colonel Robert Ashworth Godolphin Cosby of Stradbally Hall, Queen’s County.

40 Irish Times, 19 Jan. 1901.

41 Inspector general’s monthly report, Jan. 1901 (T.N.A. CO 904/72)Google Scholar.

42 Antrim county inspector’s monthly report, Jan. 1901 (T.N.A. CO 904/72)Google Scholar.

43 Irish Times, 21 Jan. 1901.

44 Ulster Gazette, 26 Jan. 1901.

45 Irish Times, 21 Jan. 1901.

46 Ibid., 9 Feb. 1901.

47 Ibid.

48 The King’s Speech was presented to Parliament at the commencement of a new session. It usually contained references to government policy or legislation. Traditionally, Parliament proposed a vote of thanks in the form of an address to the king. This was usually followed by debate over any number of wide-ranging issues concerning Parliament. Amendments to the address were normally attempts to highlight specifc issues or grievances.

49 Hansard 4, lxxxix, 726 (21 Feb. 1901).

50 Ibid., col. 728.

51 Ibid., col. 732.

52 Ibid., col. 753.

53 Ibid., col. 787.

54 See The Times, 22 Feb. 1901.

55 Hansard 4, lxxxix, 930 (21 Feb. 1901).

56 Irish Times, 2 Mar. 1901.

57 Inspector general’s monthly report, Apr. 1901 (T.N.A. CO 904/72)Google Scholar.

58 Irish Times, 4 Apr. 1901.

59 Ibid., 6 June 1901. From then on, the Ulster Farmers’ and Labourers’ Union and Compulsory Sale Association was known as the Ulster Farmers’ and Labourers’ Union.

60 Ibid.

61 Hansard 4, xcviii, 877 (1 Aug. 1901).

62 O’Brien, J.V., William O’Brien and the course of Irish politics (Berkeley, 1976), pp 130–1Google Scholar.

63 Irish Times, 2 Sept. 1901.

64 Campbell, , Land & revolution, p. 59Google Scholar. The pursuit of compulsory purchase was central to the growth and expansion of the U.I.L. as it enabled the organisation to expand outside of Connacht. Compulsory purchase was not only acceptable to the smallholders of the west but also appealed to tenant farmers and graziers in Munster and Leinster. For the effect the adoption of a compulsory-purchase campaign had on the growth and expansion of the U.I.L., see ibid., pp 60–2.

65 Russell, T.W., Ireland and the Empire (London, 1901)Google Scholar. The work dealt with the history of Ireland from the Union up until 1901. Russell discussed the education question, the land question, home rule and the Union, as well as Ireland’s fnancial position within the Empire.

66 Inspector general’s monthly report, Oct. 1901 (T.N.A. CO 904//73)Google Scholar.

67 Irish Times, 24 Oct. 1901.

68 Cosby, , Irish land problem, p. 58Google Scholar.

69 Monaghan county inspector’s monthly report, Oct. 1901 (T.N.A. CO 904/73)Google Scholar.

70 Northern Standard, 26 Oct. 1901.

71 Wyndham, to Balfour, , 2 Nov. 1901 in Life & letters of George Wyndham, vol. ii, ed. Mackail, & Wyndham, , p. 428Google Scholar. Although he was chief secretary of Ireland, Wyndham did not become a member of the Cabinet until A. J. Balfour’s appointment as Prime Minister in July 1902.

72 Inspector general’s monthly report, Dec. 1901 (T.N.A. CO 904/74)Google Scholar.

73 See Irish Times, 18, 19, 20, 21 Dec. 1901.

74 Ibid., 13, 14 Jan. 1902

75 Ibid., 20 Jan. 1901.

76 Britain fought the Second Boer War (1899–1902) against the Boer republics of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. The Treaty of Vereeniging brought the confict to a close in May 1902.

77 Irish Times, 29 Jan. 1902.

78 Ibid.

79 Ibid., 31 Jan. 1902.

80 Ibid., 4 Feb. 1902.

81 Hansard 4, cix, 102 (9 June 1902).

82 George Wyndham, , ‘Cabinet memorandum on the Irish land question’, 8 Oct. 1902 (T.N.A., CAB 37/62/139), p. 1Google Scholar.

83 Horace Plunkett diaries, 14 Mar. 1902 (Horace Plunkett papers, Plunkett Foundation, Oxford, U.K.: microflm, N.L.I., pp 6585–92)Google Scholar.

84 Russell, T.W., ‘The story of an agrarian revolution’ in Dublin Review, cxl, nos 280–1 (Jan. 1907), p. 23Google Scholar.

85 Blunt, W.S., My diaries, vol. ii (London, 1922), p. 20Google Scholar. Although an Englishman, Blunt had supported the Land League and the home rule party during the Land War in the 1880s. His activities resulted in his arrest under the Coercion Act of 1887, and he had served a brief term in prison.

86 Wyndham, to Balfour, , 9 Mar. 1902 in Life & letters of George Wyndham, vol. ii, ed. Mackail, & Wyndham, , p. 437Google Scholar. The instalment was the annual sum by which the tenant-purchaser repaid his annuity. By lengthening the period of repayment, the instalment would be reduced.

87 Irish Times, 5 Apr. 1902; William O’Brien to John Redmond, n.d. (prob. late Mar. or early Apr. 1902) (N.L.I., Redmond papers, MS 15,212/3).

88 Morris, William O’Connor, ‘The Irish land bill of 1902’ in Fortnightly Review, lxxi, no. 425 (May 1902), p. 868Google Scholar.

89 Hansard 4, cix, 1118–20 (19 June 1902).

90 See Geary, Laurence M., The Plan of Campaign, 1886–1891 (Cork, 1986), p. 161Google Scholar. Lord De Freyne’s substantial estate situated in Counties Roscommon and Mayo had been heavily involved in the Plan of Campaign in the 1880s and 1890s. On 11 May 1899 the neigh bouring estate of Lord Dillon, consisting of over 90,000 acres, was sold to the Congested Districts Board. Lord De Freyne’s refusal to sell his estate, along with the fact that the annuities the Dillon tenants paid to the government were lower than the rent the De Freyne tenants paid, led to disturbances. Paid U.I.L. organisers helped perpetuate the agitation. Russell took a keen interest in the estate and even visited it. However, while sympathising with the tenants and understanding their motivation, he was keen to avoid illegalities of any kind, and refrained from condoning the agitation.

91 Hansard 4, cxi, 1102 (17 July 1902).

92 Ibid., col. 1220 (24 July 1902).

93 Irish Times, 25 Aug. 1902.

94 Ibid., 3 Sept. 1902.

95 Ibid., 5 Sept. 1902. According to John Redmond, the earl of Dunraven, after speaking to the under-secretary, Sir Anthony MacDonnell, believed that Wyndham was ‘breast high for a big deal’: see John Redmond to William O’Brien, 1 Dec. 1902 (N.L.I., William O’Brien papers, MS 10, 496/6).

96 Inspector general’s monthly report, Oct. 1902 (T.N.A. CO 904/76)Google Scholar.

97 Ibid., Dec. 1902.

98 Ibid., 11 Sept. 1902.

99 Ibid., 13 Oct. 1902.

100 Hansard 4, cxiii, 341–4 (20 Oct. 1902).

101 Irish Times, 18 Nov. 1902.

102 Ibid., 18 Dec. 1902.

103 William O’Brien, , The Land Conference and its critics (Dublin, 1904), p. 10Google Scholar.

104 Irish Times, 10 Mar. 1903.

105 Wyndham, to Balfour, , 11 Jan. 1903 in Life & letters of George Wyndham, vol. ii, ed. Mackail, & Wyndham, , p. 453Google Scholar.

106 Russell, , ‘The Irish land question’, p. 10Google Scholar.

107 Bastable, C.F., ‘The Irish land purchase act of 1903’ in Quarterly Journal of Economics, 18, no. 1 (Nov. 1903), p. 5CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

108 Barry O’Brien, R., ‘Ireland at Westminister’ in Monthly Review, xxvii, no. 79 (Apr. 1907), pp 81–2Google Scholar.

109 Wyndham, George, Cabinet memorandum on the Irish land question, 1901 (T.N.A., CAB 37/59/147), pp 1–2Google Scholar.

110 Irish Times, 8 Oct. 1903.

111 I would like to thank Dr Terence Dooley and Professor R. V. Comerford for their assistance, encouragement and advice.