Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rcrh6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T04:00:51.709Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

QIZQAPAN: A ROCK-CUT TOMB FROM THE MEDIAN, ACHAEMENID, SELEUCID OR PARTHIAN PERIOD?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 August 2021

Iraj Rezaei
Iraj Rezaei*
Affiliation:
Independent [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

More than eight decades have passed since Edmonds's introduction to the rock-cut Tomb of Qizqapan, yet there are still ambiguities and questions regarding a number of aspects, specifically its dating. Different dates from the Median, Achaemenid, Seleucid, and Parthian periods have been proposed for this monument. However, out of all the proposed eras, none has been fully accepted by the majority of archaeologists, and disagreements regarding the date still continue. This article reviews and analyses previous proposals and discusses and evaluates other elements which affect the dating of this monument. The results show that by taking into account several factors, the most probable date for this tomb is the fourth century B.C., contemporaneous with the late Achaemenid and the early Seleucid period. The conclusion is that Qizqapan does have a Median identity but not a Median period date.

مرت أكثر من ثمانية عقود على تقديم أدموندز ’Edmonds لقبر قزقاپان المنحوت في الصخر، ولكن لا يزال هناك غموض وأسئلة تتعلق بعدد من المواضيع ذات العلاقة بهذا القبر خصوصا ما يتعلق بالتسلسل الزمني . الى حد هذا اليوم هناك تواريخ مختلفة مقترحة لهذه النصب التذكارية من العصور الميدية والأخمينية والسلوقية والبارثية . ولكن من جميع هذه العصور او الفترات ليس هناك أي منها مقبول من قبل أغلبية العلماء الأثريين ولا يزال الاختلاف في وجهات النظر حولها جاريا لحد الآن . في هذا البحث وبعد مراجعة وتحليل الآراء السابقة، تتم مناقشة وتقييم العوامل الأخرى التي لها تأثير على التسلسل الزمني لهذا النصب . وتبين نتائج هذا البحث أنه بأخذ عدد من العوامل المؤثرة في التسلسل التاريخي لقزقاپان بالاعتبار، فأن التأريخ الأكثر احتمالا لهذا القبر هو القرن الرابع قبل الميلاد المرادف للعصر الأخميني المتأخر والسلوقي المبكر. وأستنتج من ذلك أن قزقاپان له مرجعية ميديه ولكن ليس تسلسل ميدي زمني .

Keywords

Rock-cut tombdatingQizqapanMedian periodCyaxares tomb
Type
Research Article
Information
IRAQ , Volume 83 , December 2021 , pp. 167 - 182
Copyright
Copyright © The British Institute for the Study of Iraq 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alibaigi, S., Aliyari, S. and Aminikhah, N.. 2018/1396. “Sar-sotone Ionic Makshofe az Dashte Shian: Sarenakhi az yek Banay Moheme Dawre Seluki/Ashkani dar nazdike Shahrahe Khorasane bozorg” (=An Ionic Capital from the Shiān plain: A clue to an important building belonging to the Seleucid/Parthian period near the great Khorasan road). Bastanpazhoh 22–23: 37–46. (In Persian.)Google Scholar
Amin, O. S. M. 2018. “The Rock-Cut Tombs of Qizqapan, Iraqi Kurdistan: Median or Achaemenid?” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Accessed 12 April 2021 from https://www.ancient.eu/article/1181/Google Scholar
Anderson, B. 2002. “Imperial Legacies, Local Identities: References to Achaemenid Persian Iconography on Crenelated Nabataean Tombs ”. Ars Orientalis 32: 163–207.Google Scholar
Bahrani, Z. 2017. Mesopotamia: Art and Architecture. London: Thames and Hudson.Google Scholar
Basirov, O. 2010. “The Achaemenian Practice of Primary Burial: An Argument Against Their Zoroastrianism? Or a Testimony of Their Religious Tolerance?” In Curtis, J. and Simpson, St.J., The World of Achaemenid Persia, History, Art and Society in Iran and the Ancient Near East. London: I.B. Tauris, pp. 75–85.Google Scholar
Boardman, J. 2000. Persia and the West: An Archaeological Investigation of the Genesis of Achaemenid Art. London: Thames & Hudson.Google Scholar
Bowden, B. L. J. 2011. “The Origin and the Role of the Composite Bow in the Ancient Near East”. Ancient Warfare Magazine 5: 42–54.Google Scholar
Boyce, M. 1982. A History of Zoroastrianism, Vol. 2. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Briant, P. 1996. Histoire de l'Empire Perse de Cyrus à Alexandre. Paris: Fayard.Google Scholar
British Museum. n.d.a. Ephesus capital. Accessed 5 July 2021. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/G_1907-1201-834Google Scholar
British Museum. n.d.b. Cylinder seal, Achaemenid. Accessed 5 July, 2021. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1843-1114-1Google Scholar
British Museum. n.d.c. Costume fitting, Achaemenid. Accessed 5 July, 2021. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1897-1231-35Google Scholar
Calmeyer, P. 1975. “The subject of the Achaemenid tomb reliefs”. In Bagherzadeh, F., ed., Proceedings of the IIIrd Annual Symposium on Archaeological Research in Iran 1974 Muzeh-e Iran-e Bastan. Tehran: Iranian Center for Archaeological Research, pp. 233–242.Google Scholar
Calmeyer, P. 1986. Art in Iran iii. Achaemenid Art and Architecture. In Yarshater, E., ed. Encyclopaedia Iranica II/6. 569–580. Available online at https://iranicaonline.org/articles/art-in-iran-iii-achemenian. Accessed 5 July 2021.Google Scholar
Cernenko, E.V., McBride, A. and Goreli, M. V.. 1983. Scythians 700-300 B.C. Oxford: Osprey.Google Scholar
Colledge, M. 1967. The Parthians. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Culican, W. 1965. The Medes and Persians. London: Thames and Hudson.Google Scholar
Curtis, J. ed. 1995. Later Mesopotamia and Iran: Tribes and Empires, 1600-539 BC: Proceedings of a Seminar in Memory of Vladimir G. Lukonin. London: British Museum Press.Google Scholar
Curtis, J. E. and Tallis, N., eds. 2005. Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Diakonoff, I. M. 1998/1377. Tarikh-e Maad (=Istoriya Midii ot drevenishikh vremen do kontasa IV veka de e.E, 1956). Translated by Keshavarz, Karim. Tehran: Elmi Farhangi. (In Persian).Google Scholar
Edmonds, C. J. 1934. “A Tomb in Kurdistan”. Iraq 1(2): 183–192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fedak, J. 1990. Monumental Tombs of the Hellenistic Age: A Study of Selected Tombs from the Pre-Classical to the Early Imperial Era. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finn, J. 2011. “Gods, Kings, Men: Trilingual Inscriptions and Symbolic Visualizations in the Achaemenid Empire”. Ars Orientalis 41: 219–275.Google Scholar
Frankfort, H. 1970. The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.Google Scholar
Garrison, M.B. 2010. “Archers at Persepolis: The Emergence of Royal Ideology at the Heart of the Empire”. In Curtis, J. and Simpson, St.J., eds., the World of Achaemenid Persia, History, Art and Society in Iran and the Ancient Near East. London: I.B.Tauris, pp. 337–360.Google Scholar
Garrison, M.B. and Dion, P.. 1999. “The Seal of Ariyaramna in the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto”. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 58(1): 1–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gay, K. A. and Corsten, T.. 2006. “Lycian Tombs in the Kibyratis and the Extent of Lycian Culture”. Anatolian Studies 56: 47–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghandgar, J., Esmaeili, H. and Rahmatpour, M.. 2004/1383. “Kawoosh-hay bastanshenasi Qaleh Azhedehak-e Hashtroud”. In Azarnoush, M., ed. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Iranian Archaeology: Northwestern Region. Tehran: ICAR-R.C.C.H.H.T. pp, 193–228.Google Scholar
Ghasemi, M. 2009/1388. Baresi va motalea va tahlile ghachbori-haye ashkanie banaye ghale zohak hashtrod. Unpublished M.A. thesis submitted to Abhar University.Google Scholar
Ghirshman, R. 1963. Perse: Proto-Iraniens. Mèdes, Achémenides. Paris: Gallimard.Google Scholar
Ghirshman, R. 1976. Terrasses sacrées de Bard-è Néchandeh et Masjid-i Solaiman. Memoires de la Délégation Archéologique en Iran 45, Paris: Brill.Google Scholar
Godley, A. D. trans. 1975. Herodotus, The Histories, Books 1 and 2. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Haerinck, E. 1997. “Babylonia under Achaemenian rule”. In Curtis, J. E., ed., Mesopotamia and Iran in the Persian Period: Conquest and Imperialism 539-331 BC. London: British Museum Press, pp. 26–34.Google Scholar
Haerinck, E. and Overlaet, B.. 2008. “Altar Shrines and Fire Altars? Architectural Representations on Frataraka Coinage”. Iranica Antiqua 43: 207–233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Head, D. 1992. The Achaemenid Persian Army. Stockport: Montvert Publications.Google Scholar
Herrmann, G. 1977. The Iranian Revival. Oxford: Elsevier-Phaedon.Google Scholar
Herzfeld, E. 1941. Iran in the Ancient East. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hinds, K. 2010. Scythians and Sarmatians. New York: Cavendish.Google Scholar
Hopkins, C. 1942. “Review of Iran in the Ancient East by E. Herzfeld.” The Art Bulletin 24(4): 405–407.Google Scholar
Houtkamp, J. 1991. “Some Remarks on Fire Altars of the Achaemenid Period”. In Kellens, J., ed. La religion iranienne à l’époque Achéménide, Actes du Colloque de Liège, 11 December 1987. Gent: Iranica Antiqua Supplement 5, pp. 23–48.Google Scholar
Ivantchik, A. I. 2011. “The funeral of Scythian kings: The historical reality and the description of Herodotus (4.71-72)”. In L. Bonfante, ed., European Barbarians. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 71–106.Google Scholar
Jones, H. L. trans. 1961. The Geography of Strabo, Vols. V–VII. London: William Heinemann.Google Scholar
Kantor, H.J. 1957. “Achaemenid Jewelry in the Oriental Institute”. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 16(1): 1–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keel, O. and Uehlinger, C.. 1990. Altorientalische Miniaturkunst: Des ältesten visuellen Masskommunikationsmittel. Mainz: Phillip von Zabern.Google Scholar
Koch, H. 1992. Es kündet Dareios der König; Vom Leben im persischen Großreich. Kulturgeschichte der Antiken Welt 55. Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern.Google Scholar
Krückman, O. 1933. Neubabylonische Rechts- und Verwaltungstexte (Texte und Materialien der Frau Professor Hilprecht Collection of Babylonian Antiquities im Eigentum der Universität Jena 2-3), Leipzig: Hinrichs.Google Scholar
Kuhrt, A. 2007. The Persian Empire. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Litvinsky, B. A. and Pichikian, I. R.. 1998. “The Ionic Capital from the Temple of the Oxus (Northern Bactria)”. Iranica Antiqua 33: 233–258.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luschey, H. 1996. “Die Ionische Basis”. In Kelaiss, W. and Kalmayer, P., eds. Bisutun: Ausgrabungen und Forschungen in den Jahren 1963–1967. Teheraner Forschungen Band 7. Berlin: Gebr. Mann, p. 57.Google Scholar
Maras, S. 2009. Iconography, Identity, and Inclusion: The Winged Disk and Royal Power during the Reign of Darius the Great. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Marquand, A. 1909. Greek Architecture. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
McLeod, W. 1965. “The Range of the Ancient Bow.” Phoenix 19(1): 1–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mollazadeh, K. 2014/1393. Bastanshenasie Mad (=The Archaeology of Media). Tehran: Samt. (In Persian.)Google Scholar
Moorey, P. R. S. 1978. “The Iconography of an Achaemenid Stamp–Seal Acquired in the Lebanon”. Iran 16: 143–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nylander, C. 1966. “The Toothed Chisel in Pasargadae: Further Notes on Old Persian Stonecutting”. American Journal of Archaeology 70(4): 373–376.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nylander, C. 1970. Ionians in Pasargadae, Studies in Old Persian Architecture. Uppsala Studies in Ancient Mediterranean and Near Eastern Civilizations 1. Uppsala: Universitetsbibliotek.Google Scholar
Perrot, G. and Chipiez, C.. 1890. Histoire de l'art dans l'antiquité: Égypte, Assyrie, Phénicie, Judée, Asie Mineure, Perse, Gréce, Étrurie, Rome. Paris: Librarie Hachette.Google Scholar
Piotrovskii, B. B. and Khatib Shahidi, H. 2004/1383. Tamadone Urartu (=Urartu Civilization), translated by Khatib Shahidi, H.. Tehran: Pazhoheshkade Bastanshnasi. (In Persian.)Google Scholar
Porada, E. 1965. The Art of Ancient Iran, Pre-Islamic Cultures. New York: Crown Publishers.Google Scholar
Rahbar, M., Alibaigi, S., Haerinck, E. and Overlaet, B.. 2014. “In Search of the Laodike Temple at Laodikeia in Media/Nahāvand, Iran”. Iranica Antiqua 49: 301–329.Google Scholar
Razmjou, Sh. 2004. “The LAN Ceremony and Other Ritual Ceremonies in the Achaemenid Period”. Iran 42: 119–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roaf, M. 1983. “Sculptures and Sculptors at Persepolis”. Iran 21: 1–224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roaf, M. and Stronach, D.. 1973. “Tepe Nush-i Jan, 1970: Second Interim Report. Iran 11: 129–140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rowe, M. W. 2005. “Dating studies of prehistoric pictographs in North America”. In Chippendale, C., Whitley, D. S. and Loendorf, L. L., eds. Discovering North American Rock Art, Tucson (AZ): University of Arizona Press, pp. 294–319.Google Scholar
Rowe, M. W. 2007. “Reflections on dating rock art”. In Reddy, P. C., ed. Exploring the Mind of Ancient Man. New Delhi: Research India Press, pp. 218–231.Google Scholar
Sarraf, M. R. 2008/1387. Noghoshe Barjaste Elami (=The Elamite Rock Reliefs). Tehran, Samt. (In Persian.)Google Scholar
Sarfaraz, A. A. and Firozmandi Shireh-Jini, B.. 2002/1381, Bastanshenasi va honare dawrane tarikhie Mad, Hakhamaneshi, Ashkani wa Sasani (=The archaeology and art of the historical periods, Median, Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sassanid). Tehran: Afaf. (In Persian.)Google Scholar
Schmidt, E. 1953. Persepolis I: Structures, Reliefs, Inscriptions. Oriental Institute Publications 68. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Schmidt, E. 1970. Persepolis III: The Royal Tombs and other Monuments. Oriental Institute Publications 70. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Shahbazi, A. S. 1987. “Astōdān”. Encyclopaedia Iranica II: 851–853.Google Scholar
Stronach, D. 1966. “The Koh-i Shahrak Fire-Altar”. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 25: 217–227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stronach, D. 1969. “A Circular Symbol on the Tomb of Cyrus”. Iran 9: 155–158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Summerer, L. and Von Kienlin, A.. 2010. “Achaemenid Impact in Paphlagonia: Rupestral Tombs in the Amnias Valley”. In Nieling, J. and Rehm, E., eds. Achaemenid Impact in the Black Sea. Communication of Powers. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, pp. 195–221.Google Scholar
Thompson, G. 1965. “Iranian Dress in the Achaemenian Period”. Iran 3: 121–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
University of Michigan Library. n.d. Ionic capital from the Temple of Artemis Leucophryene, Magnesia-ad-Maeandrum, Asia Minor. Accessed 5 July 2021. https://quod.lib.umich.edu/a/aict/x-gas103/gas103Google Scholar
Vernet, M. 2017. “Lycian Zemure ‘Limyra’ and the Aramaic Inscription from Limyra: A New Reading”. Aula Orientalis 35/2: 327–344.Google Scholar
Von Gall, H. 1988. “Das Felsgrab von Qizqapan. Ein Denkmal aus dem Umfeld der Achämenidischen Königesstrasse”. Bagdader Mitteilungen 19: 557–582.Google Scholar
Von Gall, H. 1993. “Dā o Doķtar”. Encyclopaedia Iranica VI: 529–530.Google Scholar
Von Gall, H., 2009. “Naqš-e Rostam”, Encyclopaedia Iranica, Accessed 12 April 2021 at: www.iranicaoine.org/artcles/naqs-e-rostamGoogle Scholar
Walser, G. 1966. Die Völkerschaften auf den Reliefs von Persepolis. Historische Studien über den sogenannten Tributzug an der Apadanatreppe. Berlin: Gebr. Mann.Google Scholar
Zettler, R. 1979. “On the Chronological Range of Neo-Babylonian and Achaemenid Seals”. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 38(4): 257–270.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zutterman, C. 2003. “The Bow in the Ancient Near East, A Re-evaluation of Archery from the Late 2nd Millennium to the End of the Achaemenid Empire”. Iranica Antiqua 38: 119–165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar