¹ Islamic Azad University (IAU) was established in 1983 as a non-government university. According to the IAU pamphlet A Guide to Islamic Azad University 1988, the idea of IAU was originally initiated by Hashemi Rafsanjani on April 21, 1982 at Tehran's Friday congregational prayers. Soon after his speech, the founding council was formed with six members, including Khamenei, Rafsanjani, Hossein Musavi, and Ahmad Khomeini. The charter of the university was registered in 1983. In 1985, in accordance with a new set of regulations on private, non-profit universities passed by the Supreme Council of the Cultural Revolution, a new charter was approved in 1987. According to the IAU pamphlet Islamic Azad University General Information 1999–2000, IAU has 134 campuses throughout the country. IAU's entrance examination has been offered every year under its own initiative and 864,190 students were studying in all degree programs in the 2002 academic year. Markaz-e Amar-e Iran, Salname-ye Amari-ye Keshvar 1380 (2002/03), 593.

² Full-time students of government universities and higher education institutions can study for free and even receive an allowance. However, students enrolled in evening classes or Payam-e Nur (university for correspondence) must pay tuition fees. Reza, Sarkar Arani Mohammad, Eslahat-e Amuzeshi va Modern sazi, (Tehran, 1382/2003), 343Google Scholar.

³ The position of IAU has been a matter of great delicacy, because IAU was created as a non-government university and not under the control of the Ministry of Science, Research, and Technology. However, after years of debates, academic degrees issued by major branches of IAU were authorized by the Ministry of Science, Research, and Technology.

⁴ In the examination of 1370 (1991/92), 10% of candidates (831,152) were accepted; in the examination of 1380 (2001/02), 10.7% of candidates (1,593,489) were accepted. Although the number of candidates as well as that of successful candidates doubled in two years, the success rate remains unchanged.

⁵ For the outline of the Islamization of universities, see, Sobhe, Khosrow, “Education in Revolution: Is Iran Duplicating the Chinese Cultural Revolution?” Comparative Education 18, no. 3 (1982)Google Scholar.

⁶ Habibi, Nader, “Allocation of Educational and Occupational Opportunities in the Islamic Republic of Iran: A Case Study in The Political Screening of Human Capital in the Islamic Republic of Iran,” Iranian Studies 22, no. 4 (1989)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷ In this paper, government universities means government funded universities and higher education institutions, including universities (both full-time and evening courses), two-year colleges, university for correspondence (Peyam-e Nur), teachers training colleges. Non-medical education in government universities is under the control of the Ministry of Science, Research and Technology, the curriculum is the same in all universities, and the professors go through a uniform, centralized selection process. Similarly, medical education is supervised and controlled by the Ministry of Health, Treatment and Medical Education.

⁸ Until the introduction of konkur, each university set its own entrance examination in Iran. It was in 1343 (1964–65), for the first time in the country's history, that konkur for government universities was held under a unified method; about 30,000 candidates sat the examination and one out of every six was accepted. Ettela‘at, 31 Farvardin 1364 (April 20, 1985).

In 1969 (Bahman 1367), the Testing and Evaluating Center (Markaz-e Azmun shenasi) was established for the purpose of making regulations on konkur. The center prepared a draft of regulations for konkur and submitted it to the national assembly. The draft was passed. In 1976 (Bahman 1354), the Testing and Evaluating Center was reorganized into a new organization called the Educational Measurement and Evaluation Organization (Sazman-e Sanjesh-e Amuzesh-e Keshvar) and this institution remained in charge of konkur until its dissolution in 1360 (1981–82). Ettela‘at, 31 Farvardin 1364 (April 20, 1985). Sazman-e Sanjesh-e Amuzesh-e Keshvar, Ashna'i ba Sazman-e Sanjesh-e Amuzesh-e Keshvar (1376/1997–98), 4.

⁹ For details of the social origins of students, see, chapter 11 of Menashri, David, Education and the Making of Modern Iran, (Ithaca, 1992)Google Scholar.

¹⁰ Zonis, Marvin, “Higher Education and Social Change: Problems and Prospects,” in Iran Faces the Seventies, ed. Yarshater, Ehsan (New York, 1971)Google Scholar.

¹¹ Johnson, Gail Cook, High-level Manpower in Iran: From Hidden Conflict to Crisis (New York, 1980)Google Scholar.

¹² Khomeini said, “Those who are creating disturbances on the streets or in the universities and creating problems for the government and the nation are followers of the West or the East.” See Khomeini, Imam, translated by Algar, Hamid, Islam and Revolution (London, 1981), 297Google Scholar. “Neither East nor West” is one of the major principles of the Islamic revolution. It aims to protect the Islamic Republic of Iran from political, economic, and cultural domination by both superpowers and to secure its independence.

¹³ Imam Khomeini, translated by Hamid Algar, Islam and Revolution, 291–292.

¹⁴ Imam Khomeini, translated by Hamid Algar, Islam and Revolution, 297.

¹⁵ The Headquarter of Cultural Revolution was formed in April 1980 with seven scholars. It has organized three major units. The first of the three is the Education Planning Unit, which is preparing the aims and subject matter of each specialized field of study so that the designed programs will both meet the needs of the country and bring forth committed human beings. The second unit is University Jihad, which aims at acquainting technical and research staff and students with Islamic values. The third institution is Iran University Press, which provides university texts dealing with subjects from science to ideological texts. Tehran Times (January 25 and 26, 1982).

¹⁶ “Westoxication” (gharbzadegi) is a word coined by Al-e Ahmad for portraying the situation of blindly following the West; he denounced “Westoxication” as a social disease.

¹⁷ “The History of Higher Education in Iran and the World,” Echo of Iran 6, no. 8 (1987): 26–28Google Scholar.

¹⁸ Hamid Algar claimed that social justice was the central theme of Islamic revolution. Algar, Hamid, “Social Justice in the Ideology and Legislation of the Islamic Revolution of Iran,” in Social Legislation in the Contemporary Middle East, ed. Michalak, Laurence O. and Salcuse, Jeswald W. (Berkeley, 1986)Google Scholar. The importance of securing equity, justice, and independence are also emphasized in the constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran (article 2). For the importance of securing equity in education, see, for example, the view of Hojjattol eslam Dr Ahmad Ahmadi, a member of the Headquarter of Cultural Revolution. He emphasized the importance of equal distribution of educational opportunities among the population and stated that the “quota method” should be adopted and students accepted into local universities as much as possible. Under the present system, 58% of all places at universities are allocated to students from Tehran. Ettela‘at, 21 Shahrivar, 1361 (September 12, 1982).

¹⁹ Sobhe, Khosrow, “Education in Revolution: Is Iran Duplicating the Chinese Cultural Revolution?” Comparative Education 18, no. 3 (1982): 278CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁰ Ettela‘at, 12 Ordibehesht, 1362 (May 2, 1983).

²¹ This condition was introduced to prevent urban high school students from transferring to high schools in underprivileged areas a few months before graduation to obtain preferential treatment.

²² Ettela‘at, 31 Farvardin, 1364 (April 25, 1985).

²³ Echo of Islam 6, no. 8 (1987): 29.

²⁴ Tehran province and capital cities of provinces were categorized as “free quota.”

Names of capital cities are Tabriz, Rasht, Orumiyeh, Sari, Kerman, Zanjan, Mashhad, Hamadan, Shiraz, Semnan, Esfahan, Yazd, Arak, Bakhtaran (later renamed Kermanshah); Ettela‘at, 25 Mordad 1361 (August 16, 1982).

²⁵ All areas not categorized as free quota belong to the area quota.

²⁶ Ettela‘at, 25 Mordad 1361 (August 16, 1982).

²⁷ Ettela‘at, 25 Mordad 1361 (August 16, 1982).

²⁸ Nader Habibi, “Allocation of Educational and Occupational Opportunities,” 27–31.

²⁹ Ettela‘at, 7 Khordad 1363 (May 28, 1984).

³⁰ Ettela‘at,15 Esfand 1363 (March 6, 1985).

³¹ Keyhan, 3 Esfand 1365 (February 22, 1987).

³² Keyhan Hava'i, 21 Dei 1367 (January 11, 1989).

³³ Ettela‘at, 11 Azar, 1371 (December 2, 1992).

³⁴ A number of examples of arguments against investigation can be cited: “The issue of investigation of candidates' background has been a subject of disputes and protests in the last few years. A few members of parliament and some of the newspapers criticized the selection procedures last year noting that a large number of people had been dropped as a result of what they termed incorrect procedures.” Iran Press Digest (15 Ordibehesht 1366/May 5, 1987).

“Often a student who was rejected in the first screening was found admissible upon a second review.” Echo of Islam 6, no.8 (1987): 29Google Scholar. For further details of the problem of investigation, see, Nader Habibi, “Allocation of Educational and Occupational Opportunities,” 27–31; Ettela‘at, 31 Farvardin 1364 (April 20, 1985); Menashiri, David, Education and the Making of Modern Iran, (Ithaca, 1992), 317Google Scholar.

³⁵ Ettela‘at, 21 Tir 1367 (July 12, 1988).

³⁶ The Ministry of Culture and Higher Education changed its name to the Ministry of Science, Research, and Technology in 2001.

³⁷ Keshvar, Sazman-e Sanjesh-e Amuzesh-e, Ashna'i ba Sazman-e Sanjesh-e Amuzesh-e Keshvar, (Iran, 1997), 4Google Scholar.

³⁸ The following are the subdivisions of the revolutionary quota: handicapped veterans (their degree of disability is between 25% and 69%); families of martyrs (spouse, brother and sister of martyr, missing person, and war prisoner); shahed (handicapped veterans whose degree of disability exceeds 70%, or their children as well as children of martyrs and missing persons); volunteer war veterans (those engaged in military service on the front line for at least 6 months between 1359/6/31 and 1367/6/31); literacy campaigners (those who teach for at least 2 years in a village literacy campaign); construction crusaders (those who work in villages for at least 2 years as members of construction crusades); captives (those who had been war prisoners); and nomads.

³⁹ The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, article 13, prescribes that “Zoroastrian, Jewish and Christian Iranians are the only recognized religious minorities.”

⁴⁰ The Higher Council of Cultural Revolution approved the restructure of the high school system in 1991, and the new system started in 1992. Vezarat-e Amuzesh va Parvaresh, Kolliyat-e Nezam-e Amuzesh-e Motavasseteh, 1373(1994/95), 24.

⁴¹ 76.5% of applicants were graduates of four-year high schools (old system) and 23.8% were graduates of pre-university courses (new system). Sazman-e Sanjesh-e Amuzesh-e Keshvar, Karnameh-ye Azmun-e Sarasari 1377(1998/99), 10.

⁴² Sazman-e Sanjesh-e Amuzesh-e Keshvar, Rahnama-ye Azmun-e Sarasari 1378(1999/2000), no. 1.

⁴³ Karnameh-ye Azmun-e Sarasari 1377(1998/99), 1377(1998/99), 10.

⁴⁴ Nader Habibi, “Allocation of Educational and Occupational Opportunities,” 32–33.

⁴⁵ Paidar, Parvin, Women and the Political Process in Twentieth-century Iran (Cambridge and New York, 1995), 320Google Scholar. According to Azadeh Kian, admittance to 123 university courses (out of a total of 431), including management, engineering, business administration, and law, is forbidden for women. Kian, Azadeh, “Gender Occupation and Women's Status in Post-Revolutionary Iran,” Middle Eastern Studies 31, no. 3 (July 1995): 414CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁶ http://www.sanjesh.org.

⁴⁷ Ministry of Science, Research, and Technology, Higher Education in Iran: A National Report 2000 (2001), 34.

⁴⁸ Vezarat-e Farhang va Amuzesh-e ‘Ali, Rahnama-ye Daneshgaha va Amuzesh-e ‘Ali No. 2 (1375 [1996/97]).

⁴⁹ Ettela‘at, 21 Shahrivar 1361 (September 12, 1982).

⁵⁰ The agreement of service was introduced from the first konkur. Ettela‘at, 25 Mordad 1361 (August 16, 1982).

⁵¹ Reza, Sarkar Arani Mohammad, “A Comparative Study of the Teacher Training in Iran and Japan,” Quarterly Journal of the Faculty of Psychology and Education, Tehran University, 1, no. 1, (1995): 187–206Google Scholar.

⁵² Vezarat-e Amuzesh va Parvaresh, Amuzesh va Parvaresh dar Dawlat-e Haftom (1380 [2001/02]), 77.

⁵³ http://www.emrooz.org/pages/date/82-06/news05.htm (August 27, 2003).

⁵⁴ Hoseini, Doktor-e Seyyed ‘Ali Akbar, “Barrasi-ye Barkhi az vizhegiha-ye Pazirofteshodegan-e Daneshgah-e Shiraz dar Sal-e Tahsili-ye 1362-63 va Moqayeseh-ye Nesbi-ye an ba Pazirofteshodegan-e Sal-e 1355–56,” Majalleh-ye ‘Olum-e Ejtema‘i va Ensani-ye Daneshgah-e Shiraz 2 no. 2 (1987)Google Scholar.

⁵⁵ Mojtahedi, Zahra, “Barrasi-ye Rabeteh Bein-e Shiveh-ye Fe‘li-ye Gozinesh-e Daneshju va Movaffaqiyat-e Daneshgahi,” Faslname-ye Pazhuhesh va Barnamehrizi dar Amuzesh-e ‘Ali 2, no. 1 (1994): 135Google Scholar.

Zahra Mojtahedi sent out questionnaires to the students who entered the university in 1990/91. Out of 780 questionnaires collected, 602 were valid. This research clarified that the number of students who entered university through revolutionary quotas and failed to earn obligatory credits was 1.9 times higher than that of the students who entered university through one of the three area quotas and failed to earn obligatory credits. The same trend can be observed concerning the number of students whose promotion became conditional due to low scores. The number of students who entered through revolutionary quotas and whose promotion became conditional was 2.8 times higher than that of the students who entered through one of the three area quotas. This research reveals that the academic competence of students allocated on the revolutionary quota is lower than that of the students allocated on the area quota.

⁵⁶ For an account of the brain drain in the 1990s, see, Torbat, Akbar E., “The Brain Drain from Iran to the United States,” The Middle East Journal 56, no. 2 (2002)Google Scholar.

⁵⁷ The situation of Iranian youth is explained in Yaghmaian, Behzad, Social Change in Iran, (Albany, NY, 2002)Google Scholar.

⁵⁸ Zahra Mojtahedi, “Barrasi-ye Rabeteh Bein-e Shiveh-ye Fe‘li-ye Gozinesh-e Daneshju va Movaffaqiyat-e Daneshgahi,” 135–138.