1. This study, entitled The Pool of Nectar: Muslim Interpreters of Yoga, is in preparation and should go to press soon. My critical edition of the Arabic text, together with the principal Persian translation, will be published separately.

2. For surveys, see Hermann Ethé, “Neupersische Litteratur.” d) “Übersetzungen aus dem Sanskrit,” in Wilh. Geiger, and Kuhn, Ernst ed., Grundriss der iranischen Philologie (Strassburg, 1896-1904) 2:352–55Google Scholar; Habibullah, A. B. M. “Medieval Indo-Persian Literature relating to Hindu Science and Philosophy, 1000-1800 A.D.,” Indian Historical Quarterly 1 (1938): 167-81Google Scholar; Rahim, M. A. “Akbar and Translation Works,” Journal of the Asiatic Society of Pakistan 10 (1965): 101-19Google Scholar; Gorekar, N. S. “Persian Language and Sanskritic Lore,” Indica 2 (1965): 107-19Google Scholar; Husayn, Muhammad Bashir “Mughliyya dawr mēñ Sanskrit awr ^˓Arabi kē fārsī tarājim,” in Badakhsani, Maqbul Beg ed., Tārīkh-i adabiyyāt-i Musulmānān-i Pākistān u Hind, vol. 4Google Scholar, part 2, Fārsī adab (1526-1707) (Lahore, 1971), 774-804Google Scholar; Muhammad Akram Shah, “Dastānēñ,” in ibid., 866-73; Shukla, N. S. “Persian Translations of Sanskrit Works,” Indological Studies 3 (1974): 175-91Google Scholar; Mujtabai, Fathullah “Persian Translations of Hindu Religious Literature,” in Mihr, Farhang ed., Yādnāmah-i Ānkitīl Dūparūn/Anquetil Duperron Bicentenary Memorial Volume (Tehran, 1351/1973), 13–24Google Scholar, with Persian translation in Persian section, “Tarjuma-hā-yi fārsī-yi āār-i dīnī-yi Hindūvān,” 76-106; idem, “Persian Hindu Writings: Their Scope and Relevance,” in his Aspects of Hindu Muslim Cultural Relations (New Delhi, 1978), 60–91Google Scholar; Sharma, Shriram A Descriptive Bibliography of Sanskrit Works in Persian, ed. Ahmad, Muhammad (New Delhi, 1982).Google Scholar The most important catalogues include Ethé, Hermann Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts in the India Office Library (Oxford, 1903Google Scholar; reprint London, 1980), and Rieu, Charles Catalogue of the Persian Manuscripts in the British Museum 3 vols. (London, 1879–83Google Scholar; reprint, London, 1966). Many important items are also listed in Marshall, D. N. Mughals in India, a Bibliographical Survey, vol. 1, Manuscripts (Bombay, 1967).Google Scholar I have not seen Muhammad Riza Jalali Na^˒ini, Tarjuma-hā-yi fārsī az kutub-i sānskrīt (Delhi, 1973).Google Scholar

3. See The Fihrist of al-Nadīm: A Tenth-Century Survey of Muslim Culture, ed. and trans. Dodge, Bayard 2 vols. (New York, 1970), 2: 589-90Google Scholar (Arabic translators from Sanskrit), 645 (astronomical and medical texts), 736 (occultism), 826–36 (fragmentary survey of Indian religions). A list of all known titles and manuscripts of Indian texts translated into Arabic is found in Sezgin, Fuat Geschichte des arabischen Schrifttums (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969-), 3: 187-202Google Scholar (medicine); 4: 118-19 (alchemy); 5: 191–202 (mathematics); 6: 116–21 (astronomy); 7: 89-97 (astrology).

4. Ahmad, Nizamuddin The Ṭabaqāt-i-Akbarī, trans. De, B. Bibliotheca Indica, 300 (Calcutta, 1911Google Scholar; reprint Calcutta, 1973), 1: 249.

5. ^˓Abdu-'l-Qādir ibn-i-Mulūkshāh al-Badāonī, Muntakhabu-'t-tawārīkh, trans. Ranking, George S. A. Biblioteca Indica, 97 (Calcutta), 1: 332.Google Scholar

6. On the basis of Jain records, Mahdi Husain has suggested that Jain scholars writing in Sanskrit were the “philosophers” with whom Sultan Muhammad ibn Tughluq (d. 1351) associated. If correct, this would still indicate a fairly specialized interest in a minority tradition that is not today considered part of the “Hindu” fold. See Husain, Mahdi Tughluq Dynasty (Calcutta, 1963), 315-39.Google Scholar

7. Netton, Ian Richard Muslim Neoplatonists: An Introduction to the Thought of the Brethren of Purity (Ikhwān al-ṣafā^˒) (London, 1982), 89-94.Google Scholar

8. Sachau, Eduard trans., Alberuni's India (London, 1888Google Scholar; reprint, Delhi, 1964); Ritter, Hellmut ed., “Al-Birūnī's Übersetzung des Yoga-sūtra des Patañjali,” Oriens 9 (1956): 165–200Google Scholar; Lawrence, Bruce B. “The Use of Hindu Religious Texts in al-Birūnī's India with Special Reference to Patanjali's Yoga-Sutras,” in The Scholar and the Saint: Studies in Commemoration of Abu'l Rayhan al-Bīrūnī and Jalal al-Din al-Rūmī, ed. Chelkowski, Peter J. (New York, 1975), 29-48Google Scholar; Pines, Shlomo and Gelblum, Tuvia “Al-Birūnī's Arabic Version of Patañjali's Yogasūtra: A Translation of his First Chapter and a Comparison with Related Sanskrit Texts,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies (BSOAS) 29 (1966): 302–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, “Al-Birūnī's Arabic Version of Patañjali's Yogasūtra: A Translation of the Second Chapter and a Comparison with Related Texts,” BSOAS 40 (1977): 522–49CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, “Al-Birūnī's Arabic Version of Patañjali's Yogasūtra: A Translation of the Third Chapter and a Comparison with Related Texts,” BSOAS 46 (1983): 258–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

9. Lawrence, Bruce B. Shahrastānī on the Indian Religions (The Hague, 1976)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, “al-Birūnī and Islamic Mysticism,” in Al-Bīrūnī Commemorative Volume, ed. Said, Hakim Mohammed (Karachi, 1979), 372Google Scholar; idem, “Birūnī, Abū Rayḥān. viii. Indology,” Encyclopaedia Iranica (EIr) 4: 285-87.Google Scholar

10. Halbfass, Wilhelm India and Europe: An Essay in Understanding (Albany, 1988), 26–27.Google Scholar

11. Ritter, “Al-Birūnī's Übersetzung,” 167; Pines and Gelblum, “Al-Birūnī's Arabic Version,” 309-10

12. Pines and Gelblum, “Al-Birūnī's Arabic Version,” 302, n. 1, quoting the incomprehension of Ibrahim ibn Muhammad al-Ghazanfar al-Tibrizi; Fathullah Mujtabai, “Al Biruni and India: The First Attempt to Understand,” in his Aspects of Hindu Muslim Cultural Relations, 51, n. 52, cites reactions to the Patañjali translation by Persian authors Abu al-Ma^˓ali in his Bayān aladyān, and Mir Findiriski in his translation of the Yoga vāsiṣṭa.

13. Massé, H. trans., “L'Exposé des religions,” Revue de l'Histoire des Religions 94 (1926): 17-75Google Scholar; Christensen, A. “Remarques critiques sur le Kitāb bayāni-l-adyān d'Abū'l-Ma^˓ālī,” Le Monde Oriental 5–6 (1911-12): 205–16Google Scholar; Lawrence, Shahrastānī, 89–90.

14. Halbfass, 29-30 (Rashid al-Din), 32-33 (Abu al-Fazl); Abu'l-Fazl ^˓Allami, The Ā^˒īn-i Akbarī, trans. Jarrett, H.S. ed. Sarkar, Jadunath (2nd ed., Calcutta, 1948Google Scholar; reprint New Delhi, 1978), 3: vii-ix, 141-358.

15. Sachau, trans., Alberuni's India, Preface, 1.

16. See, for instance, works on erotics and farriery translated from Sanskrit to Persian and dedicated to ^˓Abd Allah Qutbshah of Golconda (d. 1672) and Muzaffar Shah II of Gujarat (d. 1526), listed by Marshall, 227, no. 792; 548, no. 621A. On Indian music see the numerous translations listed by Ethé, nos. 2008–33, and in particular Husaini, Indo-Persian Literature, 227-47, for a detailed description of the Lahjat-i Sikandar Shāhī. For further examples of translations on practical subjects see also C. A. Storey, Persian Literature 2: 4-5, 17, 26 (mathematics); 38, 93 (astronomy); 231, 253-54, 266 (medicine); 394-96 (farriery); 412-22 (music); 439 no. 13 (alchemy).

17. On the early Mahābhārata version see Reinaud, J. T. Fragments arabes et persans inédits relatifs a l'Inde, anterieurement au XIe siècle (Paris, 1845Google Scholar; reprint Amsterdam, 1976), 17-29. The Bhagavāta Pūrāna translation is described by Aumer, J. Die persischen Handschriften der K. Hof- und Staatsbibliothek in Mūnchen (Munich, 1866)Google Scholar, cited by Ethé, no. 1952, col. 1091.

18. Fatema Husaini, Syeda Bilqis A Critical Study of Indo-Persian Literature during Sayyid and Lodi Period, 1414-1526 A.D. (Delhi, 1988), 15, 85Google Scholar; Schmidt, Richard Das Kathakautukam des Çrivara verglichen mit Dschami's Jusuf und Zuleikha (Kiel, 1893)Google Scholar; idem, Srivara's Kathakautukam, die geschichte von Joseph in Persisch-Indischem Gewande, Sanskrit und Deutsch (Kiel, 1898).Google Scholar

19. Maurer, Walter Harding “Pañcatantra,” Encyclopedia of Religion 9: 161–64.Google Scholar

20. See most recently Richards, John F. The Mughal Empire, vol. I.5 of The New Cambridge History of India (Cambridge, 1993), 36-40, 44-47.Google Scholar

21. See the stimulating essay of Hardy, Peter “Abul Fazl's Portrait of the Perfect Padshah: A Political Philosophy for Mughal India-or a Personal Puff for a Pal?” in Troll, Christian W. ed., Islam in India, Studies and Commentaries, vol. 2, Religion and Religious Education, (New Delhi, 1985), 114-37.Google Scholar

22. For coinage with Sanskrit and patronage of non-Muslim religious institutions, see my Eternal Garden: Mysticism, History, and Politics at a South Asian Sufi Center, (Albany, 1992), 47-53.Google Scholar On Akbar as the center of all religions, see Mukhia, Harbans Historians and Historiography During the Reign of Akbar (New Delhi, 1976), 70.Google Scholar

23. Seyller, John Workshop and Patron in Mughal India: The Freer Ramayana and other Illustrated Manuscripts of ^˓Abd al-Rahim (Zurich, 1999).Google Scholar

24. Nizami, Khaliq Ahmad Akbar & Religion (Delhi, 1989), 180-81.Google Scholar

25. Abu al-Fazl, in Muhammad Riza Jalali Na^˒ini and Narayan Shankar Shukla, eds., Mahābhārat, buzurgtarīn manẓūma-i kuhnah-i mawjūd-i jahān, Persian trans. from Sanskrit by Mir Ghiyas al-Din ^˓Ali Qazwini Naqib Khan et al., Hindshinasi, 15-18, 4 vols. (Tehran, 1358-59/1979-81), 1: xx.

26. Ibid., 1: xl-xli.

27. Abu al-Fazl, Mahābhārat, 1: xviii-xx. In translating the third sentence of this passage, I have emended the printed text to read juḥūd-i hunūd (“the quarreling of the Hindus“) instead of juḥūd u hunūd. Also, in the first sentence of the second paragraph under point (3), I read ra^˓ instead of ragh (meaning ra^˓ wa amīn, i.e., jewels).

28. Ethé, Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts, no. 1955.

29. Marshall, Mughals in India, no. 1768.

30. al-Fazl, Abu The Ā^˒īn-i Akbarī, 3: 110–12.Google Scholar This translation, entitled Atharban in Persian, was entrusted to Bada^˒uni, but he abandoned it after failing to find a competent pandit.

31. Marshall, Mughals in India, no. 384.

32. Talboys, J. ed., Early Travels in India (16th & 17th Centuries) (Calcutta, 1864Google Scholar; reprint Delhi, 1974), 78.

33. al-Fazl, Abu The Ā^˒īn-i Akbarī, 3: 307.Google Scholar For the practice of weighing the emperor, see Ali, Mubarak The Court of the Great Mughuls, Based On Persian Sources (Lahore, 1986), 51–53.Google Scholar

34. Storey, Persian Literarture, 1: 133 ff. (general histories),1: 442 ff. (histories of India).

35. Ferishta, Mahomed Kasim History of the Rise of the Mahomedan Power in India, Till the Year A.D. 1612, trans. Briggs, J. 4 vols. (London, 1829Google Scholar; reprint ed., Lahore, 1977),1: xlv-lxiii.

36. Tod, James Annals and Antiquities of Rajast'han, or The Central and Western Rajpoots of India, 2 vols. (London, 1914), 1: 192.Google Scholar

37. Gulzār-i ḥāl yā ṭulū^˓-i qamar-i ma^˓rifat/Prabodhachandrodaya, Persian trans. from Sanskrit by Das, Banwali ed. Chand, Tara and Hasan, Amir ^˓Abidi (Aligarh, 1967), 6-7.Google Scholar

38. Storey, Persian Literature, 1: 450-52.Google Scholar See Jūg bashist/Yogavāsiṣṭha, Persian trans. from Sanskrit by Das, Banwali ed. Chand, Tara and Hasan, Amir ‘Abidi (Aligarh: Aligarh Muslim University, 1967).Google Scholar See also Venkatesananda, Swami trans., The Concise Yoga Vāsiṣṭha (Albany, 1984)Google Scholar; O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger Dreams, Illusion and Other Realities (Chicago, 1984)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and my review of the latter in Journal of Asian and African Studies 20 (1985): 252–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

39. Storey, Persian Literature, 1: 570–72Google Scholar; this work was printed at Lahore in 1901. See also Qasemi, Sharif Husain “Čandra Bhān Barahman,” EIr, 4: 755-56.Google Scholar Another unidentified work on Hinduism by Chandarban, in question and answer form, is found in Berlin. See Pertsch, Wilhelm Die Handschriften-Verzeichnisse der Königlichen Bibliothek zu Berlin, IV, Persischen Handschriften (Berlin, 1888)Google Scholar, no. 1081/2.

40. Vassie, Roderic “Abd al-Raḥman Chishti & the Bhagavadgita: ‘Unity of Religion’ Theory in Practice,” in The Legacy of Mediaeval Persian Sufism, ed. Lewisohn, Leonard (London, 1992), 367-78.Google Scholar

41. Ethé, Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts, no. 1975.

42. Jūg bashisht, xxx.

43. Böbel-Gross, Erhard Sirr-i akbar, Die Persische Upanishad Übersetzung des Mogulprinzen Dārā Shikūhs (Marburg, 1962)Google Scholar; a Hindi translation from the Persian is available under the title Sirre akabara, ed. Mahaphuza, Salama (New Delhi, 1988).Google Scholar

44. The ascription of this Gītā version to Dara Shukuh is described as doubtful by Storey, Persian Literature, 1: 996, n. 1. On the Veda translation, see the description of an autograph MS, Brij Mohan Birla Research Centre, Ujjain (connected with Vikram University, Ujjain), cited in Motilal Banarsidass Newsletter (August 1983), 9.

45. Pertsch, Die Handschriften-Verzeichnisse, no. 1077/3. Another copy is described by Ahmad, Nazir “Notes on Important Arabic and Persian MSS, found in Various Libraries in India—II,” Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 14 (1918)Google Scholar: cxcvix-ccclvi, esp. ccxxix, no. 24, dated 1676.

46. Mir Findariski (d. 1640), who produced a translation of the Yogavāsiṣṭha, showed a similar attitude in these verses: “These words are just like water to the world, pure and enlightening like the Qur'an. / When you have passed through the Qur'an and Prophetic sayings, no one [else] has this way of speaking” (Jūg bashisht, p. xxxi).

47. Friedmann, Yohanan “Medieval Muslim Views of Indian Religions,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 95 (1975): 214–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

48. See the studies of Filliozat, Jean “Sur les Contreparties indiennes du soufisme,” Journal Asiatique 268 (1980): 259–73Google Scholar, and Shayegan, Daryush Les Relations de l'Hindouisme et du Soufisme d'après le Majma^˓ al-Bahrayn de Dârâ Shokûh, (Paris, 1979)Google Scholar; idem, “Muḥammad Dārā Shukūh, Bunyānguzār-i ^˓irfān-i taṭbīqī,” Īrān Nāmah 1 (1990).Google Scholar

49. The Arabic version of Majma^˓ al-baḥrayn by Muhammad Salih ibn Ahmad al-Misri, completed before 1771, is found in the Buhar collection (National Library, Calcutta), MS 133 Arabic. The Urdu translation by Gokul Prasad, entitled Nūr-i ^˓ayn or Light of the Eye, was lithographed at Lucknow in 1872. For the Sanskrit version, see Chaudhuri, Roma A Critical Study of Dārā Shikūh's Samudra-sangama, 2 vols. (Calcutta, 1954).Google Scholar

50. Majma^˓-ul-baḥrain or The Mingling of the Two Oceans, ed. Mahfuz-ul-Haq, M. (Calcutta, 1929)Google Scholar; Muntakhabāt-i āār-i Muḥammad ibn Shāhjahān Qādirī Dārā Shukūh, ed. Muhammad Riza Jalali Na^˒ini (Tehran, 1335/1956); Majma^˓ al-baḥrayn, ed. Muhammad Riza Jalali Na^˒ini (Tehran, 1366/1987-8).Google Scholar

51. Wensinck, A. J. “al-Khaḍir,” Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam, 232b.Google Scholar

52. Majma^˓ al-baḥrayn, ed. Jalali Na^˒ini, 2; cf. Mahfuz-ul-Haq, ed. Majma^˓-ul-baḥrain, 38.

53. Mahfuz-ul-Haq, ed., Majma^˓-ul-baḥrain, Introduction, 27; the phrase is repeated by Storey, Persian Literature, 1: 994.

54. In the opening lines of Majma^˓ al-baḥrayn, (1), Dara Shukuh quotes a version of a famous verse by the poet Sana^˒i (d. 1131), “Infidelity and religion (kufr wa dīn) are both following in your path, crying, ‘He alone, he has no partner!’” This verse is a quotation from the beginning of the Sana^˓i's classic Sufi epic Ḥadīqat al-ḥaqīqat. In its original context, it is an illustration of the Sufi concept of mystical infidelity as non-duality (see my Words of Ecstasy in Sufism [Albany, 1985), 63-96). In Dara Shukuh's version, however, the verse reads, “Infidelity and islām,” giving it a political character implying Hindu and Islamic communities or doctrines. In this he followed the same wording (and implications) as Abu al-Fazl, who is said to have engraved this verse on a temple used by Indian “monotheists” (muwaḥḥidūn) in Kashmir (Abu'l-Fazl Ā^˒īn, 1: liv-lvi). Ironically, this verse as quoted here by Dara Shukuh was seized upon by Awrangzib as evidence of his brother's apostasy from Islam, despite its classical origins in the Sufi tradition (see Syed, Anees Jahan Aurangzeb in Muntakhab-al lubab [Bombay, 1977], 77Google Scholar).

55. Rocher, Rosanne Orientalism, Poetry, and the Millennium: The Checkered Life of Nathaniel Brassey Halhed, 1751-1830 (Delhi, 1983), 48-72.Google Scholar

56. Pertsch, Die Handschriften-Verzeichnisse, no. 1082. Since this curious Persian verse by Jones (in the meter of the Shāhnāmah) may not have been noticed by his biographers, it may be worth translating, as follows: “Act thus with goodness and justice, Yunus, with compassion for creatures and fear of God, / so that after your death, all humanity, in Indian and China, will bless you. / Your companions will lament over your bier, the Musulman wailing with lacerated breast, / the Brahman reciting the Veda over it, and the Sufi scattering wine over it.”

57. Ethé, Catalogue of Persian Mansucripts, no. 2003; Rieu, 1: 63-64 (the Sanskrit text is Or. 1124, the Persian trans. is Add. 5655, and the English version is Add. 5657, fols. 163-194). A similar work composed by Kanchari Singh in 1782 is found in Pertsch, Die Handschriften-Verzeichnisse, no. 1083).

58. Rieu, 1: 63 (Add. 5654).

59. Pertsch, Die Handschriften-Verzeichnisse, no. 1076; cf. Rieu, Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts, 2: 792b/ii.Google Scholar On Murray (d. 1822), who commissioned a number of Persian treatises, see Storey, Persian Literature, 1: 1145, n. 1Google Scholar; ibid., 2: 375 (works on agriculture).

60. Ethé, Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts, nos. 1959, 1962.

61. Ethé, Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts, nos. 1725, 2905.

62. Pertsch, Die Handschriften-Verzeichnisse, 1089 (Jātaka), 1090–91 (law), 1093 (cosmology), 1094–95 (medicine).

63. Pertsch, Die Handschriften-Verzeichnisse, no. 1078/3-4.

64. Rieu, Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts, 1: 64Google Scholar (Add. 24,035); Sayyid ^˓Abd Allah, Adabiyyāt-i fārsī mēñ Hindū'ūñ kā ḥiṣṣa, (Delhi, 1942), 215, no. 5.Google Scholar This Urdu study is now available in a Persian translation by Khan, Muhammad Aslam Adabīyāt-i fārsī dar miyān-i Hindūvān (Tehran, 1371/1992).Google Scholar

65. Rieu, Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts, 1: 65-67Google Scholar (Add. 27,255); Titley, Nora M. Miniatures from Persian Manuscripts: A Catalogue and Subject Index of Paintings from Persia, India and Turkey in the British Library and the British Museum (London, 1977), no. 372.Google Scholar See further on Skinner and Company art Mildred Archer and Toby Falk, India Revealed: The Art and Adventures of James and William Fraser 1801-35 (London, 1989)Google Scholar, index, s.n. Skinner.

66. Rocher, Rosane “British Orientalism in the Eighteenth Century: The Dialectics of Knowledge and Government,” in Breckenridge, Carol A. and van der Veer, Peter ed., Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament: Perspectives on South Asia (Philadelphia, 1993), 215-49.Google Scholar

67. On Duperron's translation, entitled Oupnek'at, id est secretum tegendum, see Schimmel, Annemarie Mystical Dimensions of Islam (Chapel Hill, NC, 1975, 361Google Scholar; Hasrat, Bikrama Jit Dara Shikuh, Life and Works 2nd ed., (New Delhi, 1982), 255-58.Google Scholar

68. Schweighaeuser, J. G. “Sur les sects philosophiques de l'Inde,” Archives literaires de l'Europe 16 (1807), 193–206.Google Scholar

69. Lescallier, M. trans., Vikramacaritra: Le Trone enchanté 2 vols. (New York: J. Desnoues, 1817).Google Scholar

70. Price, David The last days of Krishna and the sons of Pandu from the concluding section of the Mahābhārata translated from the Persian version made by Naqib Khan, in the time of the Emperor Akbar, published together with miscellaneous translation (London, 1831).Google Scholar

71. Jones, William Sir Works (London, 1794), 1: 422Google Scholar, quoted by Habibullah, “Medieval Indo-Persian Literature,” 167.

72. The detailed study of European Indology by Schwab, Raymond The Oriental Renaissance: Europe's Rediscovery of India and the East, 1680-1880, trans. Patterson-Black, Gene and Reinking, Victor (New York, 1984)Google Scholar, does not address the significance of the Persian translations at all, but stresses in a classicist manner the importance of access to original Sanskrit texts.

73. Patkar, M. M. “Mughal Patronage of Sanskrit Learning,” Poona Orientalist 3 (1938): 164-75Google Scholar; Chakravarty, C. H. “Muhammadans as Patrons of Sanskrit Learning,” Sāhitya Parishad Patrika 44/1Google Scholar; Sulaiman Nadwi, S. “Literary Progress of the Hindus under Muslim Rule,” Islamic Culture 12 (1938): 424–33, 13 (1939): 401–26Google Scholar; Bhattacharyya, D. C. “Sanskrit Scholar of Akbar's Time,” Indian Historical Quarterly 13 (1937): 31-36Google Scholar; Chaudhuri, Jatindra Bimal Muslim Patronage to Sanskritic Learning, part 1 (Calcutta, 1942; reprint Delhi, 1981)Google Scholar; Tirmizi, S. A. I. “Sanskrit Chronicler of the Reign of Mahmud Begarah,” in Some Aspects of Medieval Gujarat (Delhi, 1968), 45–54.Google Scholar

74. Nath Day, Upendra Medieval Malwa, A Political and Cultural History, 1401-1562 (Delhi, 1965), 367–70, 422-28, 437-39Google Scholar; Ranbaore, M. R. “Hindu Law in Medieval Deccan,” in Sherwani, H. K. and Joshi, P. M. eds., History of Medieval Deccan (1295-1724) 2 vols. (Hyderabad, 1973-4), 2:529Google Scholar; Paranjpe Shastri, V. W. “Language and Literature—Sanskrit,” in ibid., 2: 128–29.Google Scholar

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77. For a brief survey, see McGregor, Ronald Stuart Hindi Literature from its Beginnings to the Nineteenth Century, A History of Indian Literature VIII/6 (Wiesbaden, 1984), 23–24, 26-28, 63-73, 150-54Google Scholar; Pandey, S. M. “Kutuban's Miragāvatī: its content and interpretation,” in McGregor, R. S. ed., Devotional literature in South Asia: Current research, 1985-1988, (Cambridge, 1992), 179-89.Google Scholar

78. See most recently Ali, M. Athar “Pursuing an Elusive Seeker of Universal Truth—the Identity and Environment of the Author of the Dabistan-i Mazahib,” JRAS, Series 3, 9 (1999): 365-73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

79. There is considerable information on this topic in ^˓Abd Allah, Adabiyyāt-i fārsī. See also Munzavi, Ahmad Fihrist-i mushtarak-i nuskha-hā-yi khaṭṭī-yi fārsī-yi Pākistān (Islamabad:, 1363/1405/1985), 4: 2135-2200Google Scholar, for a comprehensive list of titles and manuscripts of Persian works on Hinduism, both translations and original works.

80. Rieu, Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts, 1: 62 (Egerton 1027), copied in 1766.Google Scholar

81. Rieu, Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts, 1: 64 (Or. 476), copied 1850.Google Scholar

82. Ghazi, Abid Ullah “Raja Rammohun Roy (1772-1833): encounter with Islam and Christianity, the articulation of Hindu self-consciousness,” Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1975, 95-98.Google Scholar

83. ^˓Abd Allah, Adabīyāt-i fārsī, 216, no. 10, both found in the Lahore Public Library.

84. ^˓Abd Allah, Adabīyāt-i fārsī, 216, no. 11, where the offensive treatise is identified as Tuḥfat al-Hind. This seems unlikely, since that work is primarily an account of Indian arts and culture that is not in any way critical; see Mirza Khan ibn Fakhr al-Din Muhammad, Tuḥfat al-Hind, ed. Ansari, Nur al-Hasan (Tehran, 1354/1975).Google Scholar Perhaps what is meant is the similarly entitled Ḥujjat al-Hind of ^˓Ali Mihrabi, which consists of a polemical dialogue between two birds on the merits of Hindu mythology and Islam. The dating of the text by the Indian Vikrama or Samvat era, rather than the Islamic calendar, is a telling index of the polemical character of this work.

85. ^˓Abd Allah, Adabīyāt-i fārsī, 216, no. 12, found in Punjab University Library, Lahore.

86. Shayagan, Daryush Adyān wa maktab-hā-yi falsafī-yi Hind, 2 vols. (Tehran, 1967).Google Scholar

87. Besides the previously mentioned editions of Dara Shukuh's Majma^˓ al-baḥrayn and the Mahābhārata, see Shukuh, Dara trans., Ūpānīshād (Sirr-i akbar), ed. Tara Chand and Muammad Riza Jalali Na^˒ini, 2 vols. (Tehran, 1963Google Scholar; reprint Tehran, 1368/1989).

88. Muhammad Riza’ Jalali Na'ini, Guzīdah-i sarūd-hā-yi rīg vedā (Tehran, 1348/1969)Google Scholar; idem, Ṭarīqa-i Gurū Nānak va paydāyī-yi āyīn-i Sik (Tehran, 1349/1970)Google Scholar; idem, Ādāb-i ṭarīqat va khudāyābī dar ^˓irfān-i hindū (Tehran, 1347/1968)Google Scholar; idem, Khwīshāvandī-yi zabān va maẕhab-i qadīm-i dū qawm-i āryā-yi Īrān wa Hind (Benares, 1971); Shahrastāni, Ārā-yi Hind (bakhshī az kitāb al-milal wal-niḥal, new ed. Mustafa Khaliqdad ^˓Abbasi, ed. Muhammad Riza’ Jalali Na'ini, (Tehran, 1349/1970); Dara Shukuh, trans., Bhagavad Gītā, ed. Muhammad Riza’ Jalali Na'ini (n.p., 1957).

89. Muhammad Riza’ Jalali Na'ini and Shukla, N. S. Lughāt-i sānskrīt maẕkūr dar kitāb mālil-Hind-i ^˓Allāma Bīrūnī (Tehran, 1353/1975)Google Scholar; idem, Farhang-i fārsī prakāsh (farhang-i sānskrīt bi-fārsī) (n.p., 1354/1976); idem, Farhang-i Sanskrīt-Fārsī (Tehran, 1996).Google Scholar Cf. also Raja, Chittenjoor Kunhan Persian-Sanskrit grammar, (New Delhi, 1953)Google Scholar, and Muhammad ^˓Ali Hasani Da^˓i al-Islami, Khwudāmūz-i zabān-i Sanskrīt [Teach Yourself Sanskrit] 2nd edition, (Tehran, 1982).Google Scholar

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