Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-g8jcs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T06:20:03.017Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Men, Women, and Boys: Love and Sex in the Works of SA ‘DI

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2022

Minoo S. Southgate
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Comprising some 900 pages in the Furughi edition, the works of Sa'di include a variety of genres. The Kulliyyat (Complete Works) opens with six “Risalahs” (Homilies), containing orthodox religious and moral teachings. The homilies precede the worldly and anecdotal “Gulistan” (Rose Garden) and the more profound and spiritual “Bustan” (Orchard)--Sa'di's best known works. Next are the “Qasa'id” (Elegies, or Odes) in Persian and Arabic, the “Marasi” (Thronodies), and the “Mulamma'at” (Bilingual poems in Persian and Arabic). The “Tarji'at” (Strophe Poems), the “Tayyibat” (Sweet Poems), the “Badayi’” (Cunning Odes), the “Khavatim” (Gems), and “Ghazaliyyat-i qadim” (Old Sonnets)--altogether 300 pages in the Kulliyyat--consist mostly of love poems, covering the whole gamut of this emotion from the secular love of women and boys to the mystical love whose object is union with the divine. Miscellaneous shorter pieces appear at the end of the Kulliyyat under the headings “Sahibiyyah,” “Masnaviyyat” (Couplets), “Qata'at” (Short Poems), “Ruba'iyyat” (Quatrains), and “Mufradat” (One-liners).

Type
Articles
Information
Iranian Studies , Volume 17 , Issue 4 , Autumn 1984 , pp. 413 - 452
Copyright
Copyright © Association For Iranian Studies, Inc 1984

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Notes

1. Kulliyyat-i Sa'di, ed. Furughi, Muhammad ‘Ali (Tehran: Javidan, n:d.).Google Scholar

2. All references to “Khubsiyyat va majalis al-hazl” are to an early edition of the Kulliyyat at the Butler Library of Columbia University (call number 892.8 Sal, I 33), pp. 340-56. “Khabisat” (pl. of Khabisah, meaning an evil and impure thing), and “Khubsiyyat” (from khubs, meaning adultery, pederasty, unlawful sex) appear as variants in the title, the first in English and the second in Persian scholarship.

3. Stylistically the “Hazliyyat” is not unlike Sa'di's down-to-earth writings in the “Gulistan.” Furthermore, it exists in early manuscripts, for example in a Kulliyyat made 35 years after Sa'di's death. There is therefore no reason to think the “Hazliyyat” spurious. See Ahmad Javid, “Yik nuskhah-yi kuhan as Kulliyyat-i Sa'di,” Maqalati darbarah-yi zindigi va shi'r-i Sa'di, ed. Mansur Rastigarnizhad, Shawra-yi Intisharat-i Danishgah- i Pahlavi, no. 47 (Shiraz, 1350/1962), p. 48.

4. Cited by Rypka, J., “Poets and Prose Writers of the Late Saljuq and Mongol Periods,” The Cambridge History of Iran (London: Cambridge University Press, 1968), V, 600.Google Scholar

5. On Sa'di's travels and long life see Safavi, Rahimzadah, Sarguzasht-i sih akhtar-i tabnak-i Iran: Sa'di, Hafiz, Ibn-i Sina (Tehran: ‘Ilmi, 1335/1957), pp. 17–20, 10-12Google Scholar; and Iqbal, Abbas, “Zaman-i tavallud va ava'il-i zindigi-yi Sa'di,” Maktab-i Sa'di, ed. Sadr, Kishavarz (Tehran: Kavyan, 1338/1960), pp. 52–71.Google Scholar

6. On Sa'di's teachers see Furughi's introduction to the Kulliyyat, p. v. Sa'di mentions Ibn Jawzi in the “Gulistan,” Kulliyyat, pp. 117-18; trans. Rehatsek, Edward, The Gulistan or Rose Garden of Sa'di (London: Allen and Unwin, 1964), pp. 125–27.Google Scholar At their best, English translations of Sa'di cited in this paper convey only his meaning and conceal his art. On the translation of the “Gulistan” into foreign languages see Iraj Afshar, “Bahsi muqaddamati darbab-i tarh-i kitabshinasi-yi Sa'di va Hafiz,” Maqalati darbarah-yi Zindigi va shi'r-i Sa'di, p. 12.

7. See the Kulliyyat, pp. 61, 86, 92, 112, 113, 123, 138, 139, 140, 141, 167, 188, 333, 378, 395, 396. Furughi doubts that Sa'di traveled to so many places (Kulliyyat, p. iv). Edward G. Browne, however, credits Sa'di with visits to “Balkh, Ghazna, the Panjab, Somnath, Gujerat, Yemen, the Hijaz and other parts of Arabia, Abyssinia, Syria, especially Damascus, and Baalbekk…North Africa, and Asia Minor.” See A Literary History of Persia (London: Cambridge University Press, 1956), II, 529.Google Scholar

8. On the credibility of the Somnath episode see Akhtar, Qazi Ahmad Mian, “Sa'di's Visit to Somnath,” Studies: Islamic and Oriental (Lahore: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, 1945), pp. 21–36.Google Scholar According to Th. Emil Homerin this episode “may be seen as a piece of creative fiction following maqamah canons.” See his “Sa'di's Somnatiyah,” Iranian Studies, XVI, Nos. 1-2 (Winter-Spring, 1983), pp. 31–50.Google Scholar

9. Dashti, ‘Ali, Qalamruv-i Sa'di (Tehran: Amir Kabir, 2536/1977), pp. 186–87, 236-37.Google Scholar

10. “Gulistan,” Kulliyyat, p. 87, trans. Rehatsek, p. 85.

11. For instances of prejudice against blacks see the “Gulistan,” Kulliyyat, pp. 106-7, trans. Rehatsek, pp. 111-12; and the “Bustan,” Kulliyyat, pp. 354-55, trans. Wickens, G. M., Morals Pointed and Tales Adorned (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1974), 11. 3037–60.Google Scholar See also Southgate, Minoo S., “Negative Images of Blacks in Some Medieval Iranian Writings,” Iranian studies, XVIII, No. 1 (Winter 1984), pp. 13, 17, 24-25.Google Scholar For prejudice against Jews see the “Gulistan,” Kulliyyat, pp. 141, 144, 155; trans. Rehatsek, pp. 159, 164, 178.

12. Cambridge History of Iran, V, 600.Google Scholar

13. ‘Ali Dashti, p. 232. See also Muhammad Ja'far Mahjub, “Guftugu'i kutah darbarah-yi zaban-i Sa'di va payvand-i an ba zindigi,” Maqalati darbarah-yi zindigi va shi'r-i Sa'di, pp. 344-45.

14. R. Safavi, Sarguzasht-i sih akhtar…, p. 16.

15. On bowlderized English translations of the “Gulistan” see W. G. Archer's “Preface” to Rehatsek's translation, pp. 15-28. See also the Arabian Nights, trans. Richard F. Burton (Privately Printed for the Burton Club, n.d.), V, 156, n. 2.

16. Robert Surieu, Sarve Naz, trans. Hogarth, James (Geneva: Nagel Publishers, 1967), p. 7.Google Scholar

17. Kulliyyat, p. 620.

18. Robert Surieu, p. 133.

19. An anecdote in the “Bustan,” Kulliyyat, pp. 354-55, trans. Wickens, 11. 3037-60, tells of the sexual passion of a white woman for a black man, stressing the inappropriateness of such passion and the moral, “Let embracing lovers alone!”

20. “Hazliyyat,” pp. 344, 345, and 348. Satirist ‘Ubayd Zakani (d. 1379) also preferred boys to women and sodomy to intercourse. See his “Hundred Precepts,” Kulliyyat-i ‘Ubayd Zakani, ed. Iqbal Ashtiyani (Tehran: Sharq, 1332/1959), pp. 43-48, and an autobiographic poem, “Masnaviyyat,” p. 51. According to Richard Burton (Arabian Nights, X, 204), marital pederasty was a problem in Iran as late as the thirteenth century: “We can hardly wonder at the loose conduct of Persian women perpetually mortified by marital pederasty.” See also “The Man's Dispute with the Learned Woman Concerning the Relative Excellence of Male and Female,” in the 419th Night, Arabian Nights, V, 154-63.

In her study of Sohar, in Oman, anthropologist Unni Wikan discusses the xanith (homosexual male prostitute) as a person regarded by Soharis “as neither man nor woman…but having a truly distinct, third gender role.” The xanith primarily serves heterosexual single men. Wikan hypothesizes that the Soharis condone male homosexual prostitution because they consider it a lesser evil than female prostitution:

…It would be difficult to maintain a conception of women as simultaneously pure and sexually active, if some among them were publicly acknowledged also to serve as prostitutes. If the public view, however, is that prostitution is an act of xaniths, whereas women are not associated with the moral decay that prostitution represents, then women may be conceptualized as pure and virtuous in their sexual role.

See Behind the Veil in Arabia (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1982), pp. 168, 178.

21. See Dihkhuda, ‘Ali Akbar, Amsal va hikam (Tehran: Amir Kabir, 1339/1960)Google Scholar, s.v. zanan, mard, al-nisa', and haba'il al-shaytan; and Hughes, Thomas Patrick, A Dictionary of Islam (Clifton, N.J.: Reference Book Publishers, 1965)Google Scholar, s.v. wives and women.

22. The Quran, iv, 34, quoted in Waddy, Charis, Woman in Muslim History (London: Longman, 1980), p. 30.Google Scholar

23. Abdullah Yusuf ‘Ali, ed. and trans., The Holy Qur-an: Text, Translation and Commentary (Washington, D.C.: The Islamic Center, 1978), xii, 28.Google Scholar

24. Dihkhuda, Amsal va hikam. p. 279.

25. Quoted by Mutlaq, Jalal Khaliqi, “Gardishi dar Garshaspnamah,” Iran namah, Vol. II, No. 1 (Autumn 1983), p. 122.Google Scholar See pp. 120-27 for a collection of Asadi's “negative and harsh” statements about women.

26. Khusraw va Shirin, ed. Dastgirdi, Vahid (Tehran: Ibn-i Sina, 1333/1954), pp. 197, 346.Google Scholar See also Laila va Majnun, ed. Vahid Dastgirdi (Tehran: Ibn-i Sina, 1333/1954, p. 144; trans. Atkinson, James, Laila and Majnun (London: Valpy, 1836), 11. 1447–62.Google Scholar

27. Dihkhuda, Amsal va hikam, p. 919.

28. Ed. Mujtaba Minuvi and ‘Aliriza Haydari (Tehran: Khwarazmi, 1356/1978), pp. 216, 218; trans. Wickens, G. M., The Nasirean Ethics (London: Allen and Unwin, 1964), pp. 162, 163.Google Scholar Emphasis added. See also ‘Imad ibn Muhammad al-Na'ri, Tutinamah: jawahir al-asmar, Intisharat-i Farhang-i Iran (Tehran: 1352/1974). p. 26.Google Scholar

29. Dihkhuda, Amsal va hikam, p. 919.

30. Shahnamah (Tehran: Amir Kabir, 1341/1953), p. 123. This line does not appear in the Shahnamah-yi Firdawsi, ed. Bertels, E. (Moscow, 1962), III, p. 34, 1. 438.Google Scholar

31. The shahnamah, ed. Bertels, I, p. 160, gives this line in the footnotes rather than the text. In the Amir Kabir edition the line occurs in the text, p. 52. Some male characters in the Shahnamah express similar views on women. It is better for a great man to be dead than to be influenced by a woman, says Rustam, blessing only the woman not yet born of a mother! Women are strangers to wisdom, says Siyavush. See the Shahnamah-yi Firdawsi, ed. Bertels, III, p. 171, 11. 2618-19 and p. 15, 1. 165.

32. Vis va Ramin, ed. Mahjub, Muhammad Ja'far (Tehran: Ibn-i Sina, 1337/1959), pp. 97–98Google Scholar; trans. Morrison, George, Vis and Ramin (New York: Columbia University Press, 1972), p. 90.Google Scholar

33. (Tehran: Sharq, 1928). All quotations are from pages 54-57; translated in Arberry, A. J., Fitzgerald's Salaman and Absal (London: Cambridge University Press, 1956), pp. 160–61.Google Scholar

34. “Hippolytus,” in Euripides I, trans. Lattimore, Richmond et al. (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1955), 11. 619–24.Google Scholar On the same theme, Firdawsi suggests that having acquired a proper child, a man should forswear the love of woman. See The Shahnamah-yi Firdawsi, ed. Bertels, III, p. 39, 1. 567.

35. In his view that the child is created from man's sperm alone, Jami agrees with Aristotle. See Edgar Gregersen, Sexual practices (New York: Franklin Watts, 1983), p. 34. Apparently Jami was ignorant of Al-Ghazali's opinion in Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din (Revivification of Religious Sciences) that “The child is not created from the man's sperm alone, but from the union of a sperm from the male with a sperm from the female…and in any case the sperm from the female is a determinant factor in the process of coagulation.” Translated in Mernissi, Fatima, Beyond the Veil (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1975), p. 8.Google Scholar

36. On Islam's “fear [of] the power of female sexual attraction over men” see Fatima Mernissi, Beyond the Veil, pp. 1-28. Mernissi's analysis of Imam al-Ghazali's views on sexuality is especially noteworthy. For al-Ghazali's opinion see his Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din (Qairo: al-Halabi, 1967), II, 27–53Google Scholar; III, 126-35.

37. Amir ‘Unsur al-Ma'ali Kaykavus ibn Iskandar, Qabusnamah, ed. Sa'id Nafisi (Tehran: Furughi, 1342/1964), p. 98; trans. Levy, Reuben, A Mirror for Princes: The Qabus Nama (London: Cresset, 1951), p. 125.Google Scholar For aphorisms and proverbs on women and marriage see Dihkhuda, Amsal va hikam, pp. 920-21.

38. Qabusnamah, p. 98; trans. Levy, p. 125.

39. Akhlaq-i Nasiri, pp. 229-30; trans. Wickens, p. 173. Thirteenth-century poet Awhadi warns that teaching women to read and write will augment their capacity for evil. See Dihkhuda, Amsal va Hikam, p. 921.

40. Dihkhuda, Amsal va hikam, p. 919.

41. Kulliyyat, p. 24. Many writers place women and children in a single category below men. The author of the Qabusnamah, for example, advises his son to “quarrel with nobody; quarreling is not indulged in by men of dignity; but rather by women and little children (p. 55; trans. Levy, p. 69). Similarly, a chapter in the Akhlaq-i Nasiri (p. 231) teaching men the correct way to address others advises them to be “cautious in addressing common people, children, women, madmen, and drunken persons,” trans. Wickens, p. 174.

42. Akhlaq-i Nasiri, p. 169, trans. Wickens, p. 123.

43. “Gulistan,” Kulliyyat, p. 79; trans. Rehatsek, p. 76. For similar remarks on woman's cowardice and man's bravery see the “Bustan,” Kulliyyat, pp. 265, 266; trans. Wickens, 11. 1085, 1087, 1096.

44. “Bustan,” Kulliyyat, p. 283, trans. Wickens, 11. 1482-83.

45. “Gulistan,” Kulliyyat, pp. 209, 204; trans. Southgate.

46. al-Arjani, Faramarz, Samak-i ‘Ayyar, ed. Parviz Natal Khanlari. Bunyad-i Farhang-i Iran, No. 52 (Tehran: 1347/1969), I, 47.Google Scholar

47. Pp. 196-97.

48. “Bustan,” Kulliyyat, p. 257; trans. Wickens, 1. 887.

49. “Tayyibat,” Kulliyyat, p. 583.

50. “Gulistan,” Kulliyyat, pp. 106-7; trans. Rehatsek, pp. 111-13.

51. “Bustan,” Kulliyyat, p. 371; trans. Wickens, 11. 3407-9.

52. Ibid., pp. 371-72; trans. 11. 3414-41, and “Gulistan,” Kulliyyat, pp. 177, 178; trans. 209, 210.

53. Akhlaq-i Nasiri, pp. 237-38; trans. Wickens, pp. 178-79.

54. Kulliyyat, p. 31.

55. “Bustan,” Kulliyyat, p. 390; trans. Wickens, 1. 3856.

56. Ibid., pp. 361-62, trans. 11. 3187-3220.

57. Jalal al-Din Muhammad al-Diwani (L.k.h.n.v. [1957]), pp. 192ff., trans. Thompson, W. F., Practical Philosophy of the Muhammedan People (Karachi: Karimsons, 1977), pp. 262–74.Google Scholar

58. The Quran, iv, 34; quoted in A Dictionary of Islam, p. 671.

59. Akhlaq-i Nasiri, p. 215; trans. Wickens, p. 161.

60. P. 93; trans. Levy, p. 118.

61. Akhlaq-i Nasiri, pp. 215-16; trans. Wickens, p. 161. See also the Qabusnamah, pp. 129-30; trans. Levy, p. 117.

62. Akhlaq-i Nasiri, p. 219; trans. Wickens, p. 164. The Qabusnamah gives the husband similar advice, adding, “even though you may be infatuated with her do not spend every night in her society,” p. 94; trans. Levy, p. 119.

63. Akhlaq-i Nasiri, p. 217; trans. Wickens, p. 162.

64. Ibid., p. 219; trans. 164.

65. Ibid., pp. 80, 94; trans, pp. 108, 119.

66. “Gulistan,” Kulliyyat, p. 123; trans. Rehatsek, p. 134.

67. Ibid., p. 166; trans, p. 193.

68. Ibid., p. 178; trans, p. 209. For other examples see pp. 90-91 and 124 in the original and pp. 90-92 and 135 in the translation.

69. “Bustan,” Kulliyyat, p. 362; trans. Wickens, 11. 3221-26. See also pp. 299 and 300 in the original and 11. 1827-38 and 1852-62 in the translation.

70. “Gulistan,” Kulliyyat, p. 156; trans. Rehatsek, p. 179.

71. The Works of Geoffrey Chaucer, ed. Robinson, F. N. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1957), IV (E), 11. 1268–70.Google Scholar

72. “Gulistan,” Kulliyyat, pp. 179; trans. Rehatsek, p. 211.

73. Ibid., p. 176; trans, p. 207.

74. Akhlaq-i Nasiri, pp. 220-21; trans. Wickens, p. 165.

75. “Hazliyyat,” pp. 341-42.

76. Robert Surieu, Sarve Naz, p. 172. For a description of the Safavid harem see Chardin, , Voyages du Chevalier Chardin en Perse (Paris: Le Norman, Imprimeur-Libraire, 1811), VI, 6–32.Google Scholar

77. Surieu, p. 16.

78. “Terminal Essay,” Arabian Nights, X, 180, 179; I, 211.

79. Safa, Zabihullah, Tarikh-i adabiyyat dar Iran (Tehran: Ibn-i Sina, 1339/1961), II, 69–77Google Scholar; 121-24.

80. Kulliyyat, pp. 583-84.

81. Kulliyyat, p. 749.

82. Ed. Mujtaba Minuvi (Tehran: Kavah, n.d.), pp. 71-72. See also Robert Surieu, pp. 85ff.

83. Nawruznamah, p. 76.

84. “Gulistan,” Kulliyyat, p. 146; trans. Rehatsek, p. 166.

85. Nawruznamah, p. 73. See Plato's “Symposium,” in The Dialogues of Plato, ed. and trans. Jowett, B. (London: Oxford University Press, 1953), I, 478–555.Google Scholar

86. Nawruznamah, pp. 72-73.

87. “Bustan,” Kulliyyat, p. 365; trans. Wickens, 11. 3283-85.

88. These numbers refer to the Rehatsek translation of the “Gulistan.” The anecdotes are not numbered in the Furughi edition, but if numbered 1 through 21 they will correspond to the English.

89. “Gulistan,” Kulliyyat, p. 160; trans. Rehatsek, p. 185.

90. Ibid., p. 164; trans, p. 190.

91. For an analogue see the Arabian Nights, the 382nd Night, V, 65-68.

92. “Gulistan,” Kulliyyat, p. 163; trans. Rehatsek, p. 188.

93. Ibid., p. 169; trans. 197.

94. These numbers refer to the Wickens translation of the “Bustan,” where the anecdotes are numbered 43 through 62. Anecdotes are not numbered in the Furughi edition, but if numbered 43 through 62 they will correspond to the English.

95. Badi'ullah Dabirinizhad, “Tasavvuf dar nazar-i Sa'di,” Maqalati darbarah-yi zindigi va shi'r-i Sa'di,” pp. 176-81.

96. “Bustan,” Kulliyyat, p. 305; trans. Wickens, 11. 1957-59.

97. “Badayi’,” Kulliyyat, p. 725.

98. “Bustan,” Kulliyyat, p. 357; trans. Wickens, 11. 3105-8.

99. Ibid., p. 234; trans. 1. 354.

100. Ibid., p. 364; trans. 11. 3257, 3264-66. Several anecdotes and lyrical poems of Sa'di illustrate the shahid's cruel treatment of the lover. (For example, the “Bustan,” Kulliyyat, pp. 293-95, 296-97; trans. Wickens, 11. 1707-36, 1737-41, 1765-82; the “Badayi',” Kulliyyat, p. 785; and the “Hazliyyat,” p. 354.) But the lover need not suffer long, for soon the lovely down growing on the boy's upper lip becomes coarse and his beard sprouts, destroying his beauty. Satirical Persian literature is filled with invectives about the bearded youth. (See the “Hazliyyat,” pp. 344, 345; and the “Ruba'iyyat,” Kulliyyat, pp. 893, 899, 902.) ‘Ubayd Zakani's “Rishnamah” (The Book of the Beard) is the longest satire on the subject. A carpe diem dream vision in ornate prose interspersed with verse, the work reminds handsome boys that their beauty is shortlived and exhorts them to treat their admirers kindly. (See the Kulliyyat-i ‘Ubayd Zakani, pp. 32-42.)

101. “Bustan,” Kulliyyat, p. 364; trans. Wickens, 11. 3258.

102. See p. 164 in the original and p. 190 in the translation.

103. Ali Akbar Dihkhuda, Lughatnamah, ed. Muhammad Mu'in and Sayyid Ja'far Shahidi (Tehran, 1337-1353/1959-1979), s.v. shahid, pp. 160-61.

104. Ibid., s.v. amrad and mukhannas.

105. “Gulistan,” Kulliyyat, p. 138; trans. Rehatsek, pp. 154-55. The pun on ab (water) and ab-i mardan (semen) is lost in the translation.

106. See the Lughatnamah, under the terms listed.

107. Quoted by Robert Surieu, Sarve Naz, p. 16. For the Zoroastrian condemnation of the homosexual act see the “Vendidad” in The Zend-Avesta, trans. James Darmesteter, Sacred Books of the East, IV (Oxford: Clarendon, 1880), pp. 101-02.

108. iv, 15 and 16.

109. vii, 80-84; xi, 77-83; xxvi, 160-74, and xxix, 28-30.

110. P. 169; trans. Wickens, pp. 123-24.

111. Ibid., pp. 225, 232; trans, p. 169, 174.

112. Ibid., 223-24; trans. 168; see also the Tutinamah: Jawahir al-asmar, pp. 27-28, where a father unsuccessfully tries to alter his son's effeminate demeanor. It is believed here that the son is mukhannas because he is the fruit of incest.

113. “Bustan,” Kulliyyat, pp. 363-64; trans. Wickens, 11. 3252-55.

114. P. 79, translation mine.

115. Qabusnamah, p. 81; translation mine. See also the Lughatnamah, s.v. ghulam.

116. Qabusnamah, pp. 59-60; trans. Levy, p. 75.

117. Ibid., p. 60; trans. Levy, p. 76. Levy makes the beloved female, even though the context makes a female improbable. The Nafisi edition of the Qabusnamah uses the masculine ma'shuq (beloved).

118. Ibid., p. 61; trans. Levy, p. 77.

119. Ibid., p. 61; trans. Levy, pp. 77, 78.

120. Pp. 124-25; trans. Rehatsek, pp. 135-38.

121. See Lughatnamah, s.v. musahaqah and tabaq zadan, words for lesbian practices. For current religious laws against homosexual and lesbian acts (lavat, musahaqah) see paragraphs 154-64 of the Layihah-yi Qisas, ratified by Iran's present government. Repeat offenders may be punished by death (par. 161).

122. Voyages, VI, 25. Translated in Robert Surieu, Sarve Naz, pp. 135, 145.

123. Arabian Nights, IV, 234, n. 1.

124. Ibid., pp. 233-34.

125. On courtly love see Capellanus, Andreas, The Art of Courtly Love, trans. Parry, John Jay (New York: Ungar, 1959)Google Scholar; and Lewis, C. S., The Allegory of Love (London: Oxford University Press, 1958).Google Scholar

126. For edition and translation see note 32, above.

127. For edition see note 28, above.

128. Sarve Naz, p. 7.