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Jews in the Pre-Constitutional Years: The Shiraz Incident of 1905

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2022

Daniel Tsadik
Daniel Tsadik*
Affiliation:
Yeshiva University, New York
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Abstract

During the Constitutional years (1906–11) the legal status of the Jews and some other religious minorities improved, even if only to a limited extent. Can one assume that this change in the legal status of the Jews reflected changes in the public's actual treatment toward the Jews in reality during the days leading up to the Constitutional Revolution in 1906? To an extent, the answer is in the affirmative. The present article argues, however, that the real life situation of the Jews in the years leading up to the Constitutional Revolution was still often one of abuse and occasional persecution. To prove this contention, section I of the article presents some such cases. Section II establishes some of the reasons for the attacks on the Jews—not only religious, but also economic and socio-political ones, as well as briefly suggesting certain recurring paradigms surrounding it. Section III looks at one case study from November 1905 in the city of Shiraz. Finally, this preliminary research ends with some concluding remarks.

Be-karestan-e Sane‘ kas cheh danad,

kherad dar kar-e U hayran bemanad.1

Type
Research Article
Information
Iranian Studies , Volume 43 , Issue 2 , April 2010 , pp. 239 - 263
Copyright
Copyright © The International Society for Iranian Studies 2010

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Footnotes

This article is dedicated by my dear friends Jubin and Natalie Meraj for their friendship and never-failing support. Deep thanks are also due to David Yeroushalmi, Houman Sarshar, Houchang Chehabi, Janet Afary, Dominic Brookshaw, Avraham Cohen, and the outside reader for commenting on and improving this article. Special gratitude goes to my dear friends Yoni Toobian and Ilan Hayim-Poor for their tremendous support. All shortcomings are solely mine.

The archives utilized in this article are: Alliance Israélite Universelle Library (AIU), Paris; National Library, Jerusalem (JNL); Metropolitan Archives (CFC = Conjoint Foreign/Jewish Committee; JBD = Jewish Board of Deputies), London; Ministère des Affaires Étrangères (MAE), Paris; and Public Record Office (FO), London.

References

1 Shahin, , Shahin-i Turah, ed. Khooban, M. (Los Angeles: Ketab, 1999), 280.Google Scholar

2 Tsadik, D., “The Legal Status of Religious Minorities: Imami Shi‘i Law and Iran's Constitutional Revolution,” Islamic Law and Society, 10 (2003): 406–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

3 E.g. Afary, J., “Inqilab-i Mashrutah: Nukhustin Gam baraye Mubarazah ba Yahudi Sitizi dar Iran-i Qarn-i Bistum,” Yahudiyan-i Irani dar Tarikh-i Mua‘sir, ed. by Sarshar, H. (Beverly Hills, 1997), vol. 2Google Scholar, Persian section, 40–41. For a case of good relations between Jews and Muslims see AIU, Bulletin Mensuel, 31 (1903): 102.Google Scholar Apparently written in the late nineteenth or early twentieth century, during the reign of Muzaffar al-Din Shah, the following roman indirectly criticizes segments of Muslim society for its killing and mistreating the Jews; see Vahouman, H., ed., Juhud Kushan (Johud Koshan) (Stockholm, 1383/2005).Google Scholar

4 On Jews during Nasir al-Din Shah's reign, see Fischel, W., “The Jews of Persia, 1795–1940,” Jewish Social Studies, 12 (1950): 119–160Google Scholar; Netzer, A., “Qorot Yehudey Paras mi-Reshit ha Meah ha-19,” in ‘Edot Israel, ed. by Stahl, A. (Tel Aviv, 1979), vol. 2, 265–271Google Scholar; Tsadik, D., Between Foreigners and Shi‘s: Nineteenth Century Iran and its Jewish Minority (Stanford, CA, 2007).Google Scholar

5 Examples for the exacerbation of the Jews' plight under Muzaffar al-Din Shah: AIU: Iran.XI.E, Seneh, 5 Kislev TaRNaZ [=10 November 1896], Sinih community to AIU; AIU, Bullletin Mensuel, XXIV (1896): 174Google Scholar; AIU: Iran. II.C.6, Teheran, TaRNaZ, received in July 1897, Tehran community to AIU; Schwarzfuchs, S., “Qehilat Isfahan Meshava‘t le-‘Ezrah mi-KIH,” Pe‘amim, 6 (1980): 76Google Scholar; AIU: Iran, I.B.4, Cazran, 12 of Tishrey, TaRNaH [=8 October 1897], Kazarun community to Baghdad; AIU: Iran. I.C.3 bis, Kachan, Adar I, TaRSaB [=February or March 1902], Kashan community to AIU.

6 AIU: Iran. II.C.4, Kermanchah, 9 August 1893, Kirmanshah community to AIU; Cohen, A., Ha-Qehilah ha-Yehudit be-Kirmanshah (Jerusalem, 1992), 14–15.Google Scholar Apparently referring to this incident, FO 60/543, no. 100, 14 June 1893, Lascelles to FO, and memorandum by Cadogan, claims that “the Jews’ complaints were exaggerated.” One may assume that this and other conversion cases were possibly mostly nominal expressions of faith as a defensive mechanism.

7 AIU: Iran. II.C.4, Kermanchah, 13 [or: 17] of mekhilan de-rahamim [=Elul], TaRNaG [=25 or 29 August 1893], received on 22 September 1893, Kirmanshah community to AIU. The inheritance law was abrogated on various occasions during the nineteenth century; see: Tsadik, Between Foreigners and Shi‘is, 110, 116, 152, 232, 239.

8 AIU. Bulletin Mensuel, 24 (July 1896): 101–102, Kirmanshah community to AIU, 25 Adar 5656 [=10 March 1896]; Cohen, Ha-Qehilah ha-Yehudit be-Kirmanshah, 15–17.

9 JBD: ACC/3121/BO2/09/009, file 2, Kirmanshah, 16 Elul, 5656 [=25 August 1896], [Kirmanshah community] to AJA. Same is in: AIU, Bulletin Mensuel, 24 (December 1896): 172, probably with a mistaken date of 16 September. On the office of the “protector of the Jews,” see Tsadik, Between Foreigners and Shi‘is, 50–52.

10 JBD: ACC/3121/BO2/09/009, file 2, 28 October 1896, AJA in connection with AIU to L. Emanuel. CFC: minute book: ACC/3121/C11A/001, 4 November 1896; JBD: ACC/3121/BO2/09/009, file 2, 13 November 1896, David Sassoon to L. Emmanuel/JBD. JBD: ACC/3121/BO2/09/009, file 2, 30 November 1896, FO to CFC; MAE: Correspondance Politique et Commerciale/1897–1918 (nouvelle série), Perse, box number 52, file: Écoles Français, 1897–1907, sub-file: l'Alliance Israélite et les Juifs de Perse, AIU to MAE, 15 December 1896; AIU, Bulletin Mensuel, 24 (December 1896): 172–173.

11 AIU: Iran. II.C.6, Teheran, TaRNaZ, received on July 1897, Tehran community to AIU.

12 AIU: Iran.II.C.6, Teheran, 17 May 1897, Meyer Levy/Tehran to AIU. This letter with omissions is in: AIU, Bulletin Mensuel, 25 (June 1897): 70–71.Google Scholar Cf. Sahim, H., “Jews of Iran in the Qajar Period; Persecution and Perseverance,” in Religion and Society in Qajar Iran, ed. by Gleave, R. (London and New York, 2005), 302–303.Google Scholar FO 60/595, no. 14, 28 January 1898, Hardinge to FO (a biographical dictionary, 71): “Aka Sayyid Raihan Ullah, Burujirdi—is the leader of the anti-Jewish party. Persecuted the Jews in Hamadan a year or two ago, and led the movement against them in Tehran in 1897. Resides close to the mosque of Muhammad Khan, Sipah Salar; is very learned, but not much respected by other Mujtahids; has many followers among the lower classes. Age about 55.” On him, see also Hasan Khan, M., al Saltanah, I‘timad, Chihil Sal Tarikh-i Iran dar Dawrah-yi Padishah-yi Nasir al-Din Shah; Al-Mathir wa-al-Athar, ed. by Afshar, I. (Tehran, 1363–68), vol. 1, 211.Google Scholar

13 MAE: Correspondance politique et commerciale/1897–1918 (nouvelle série), Perse, Box number 52, file: Écoles Français, 1897–1907, sub-file: l'Alliance Israélite et les Juifs de Perse, no. 40, 20 May 1897, French Legation/Tehran to MAE. The patch mentioned here is yellow. For a different list of restrictions: JBD: ACC/3121/BO2/09/009, file 3, 24 May 1897.

14 JBD: ACC/3121/BO2/09/009, file 3, 24 May 1897. On Nehorai Nur Mahmud, see Tsadik, Between Foreigners and Shi‘is, 11, 108.

15 AIU: Iran.II.C.6, Teheran, 24 May 1897, Meyer Levy to AIU. JBD: ACC/3121/C11/14/028, no. 70, 26 May 1897, Hardinge to FO; MAE: Correspondance Politique et Commerciale/1897–1918 (nouvelle série), Perse, box number 52, file: Écoles Français, 1897–1907, sub-file: l'Alliance Israélite et les Juifs de Perse, 24 June 1897, AIU to MAE; AIU: Iran.II.C.6, Teheran, 28 June 1897, AIU to Meyer Levy. JBD: ACC/3121/GO1/01/003, 47th Annual Report for April 1898 (London, 1898); session 5655–58—1895–98, London Committee of Deputies of the British Jews, 8 July 1897, Conjoint Jewish Committee [=CFC] to FO, 34; CFC: minute book: ACC/3121/C11A/001, 4 July 1897; FO 60/583, no. 60, 15 July 1897, FO to Hardinge; JBD: ACC/3121/C11/14/028, 16 July 1897, FO to secretary of the Conjoint Jewish Committee. JBD: ACC/3121/GO1/01/003, 47th Annual Report for April 1898 (London, 1898); session 5655–58—1895–98, London Committee of Deputies of the British Jews, 26 July 1897, Conjoint Jewish Committee to FO, 36.

16 JBD: ACC/3121/BO2/09/009, file 3, 24 May 1897; AIU: Iran.II.C.6, Teheran, 24 May 1897, Meyer Levy to AIU.

17 AIU, Bulletin Mensuel, 25 (July 1897): 86. I followed the following translation: Confino, A., “Establishment of the Alliance School in Teheran,” in Padyavand III, ed. by Netzer, A. (Los Angeles, 1999), 95.Google Scholar For slightly different translations: Littman, D., “Jews under Muslim Rule: The Case of Persia,” The Wiener Library Bulletin, New Series nos. 49/50, 32 (1979): 11Google Scholar (For the French version of this article: Littman, D., “Les Juifs en Perse avant les Pahlevi,” Les Temps Modernes, 395 (1979): 1910–35)Google Scholar; Jewish Missionary Intelligence (1897): 158.

18 CFC: minute book: ACC/3121/C11A/001, 26 July 1897. But see Jewish Missionary Intelligence (1897): 158 (Kirmanshah and Hamadan); Littman, “Jews,” 10–11 (Hamadan).

19 Elaboration in: JBD: ACC/3121/GO1/01/003, 47th Annual Report for April 1898 (London, 1898); session 5655–58—1895–98, London Committee of Deputies of the British Jews, 3 September 1897, 38; FO 60/585, no. 58, 9 September 1897, Hardinge to FO; JBD: ACC/3121/GO1/01/003, 47th Annual Report for April 1898 (London, 1898); session 5655–58—1895–98, London Committee of Deputies of the British Jews, 3 February 1898, Conjoint Jewish Committee to FO, 40–41; JBD: ACC/3121/C11/14/027; FO 60/596, no. 22, 11 February 1898, Hardinge to FO; FO 60/595, no. 10, 14 February 1898, FO to Hardinge; JBD: ACC/3121/A 013, minute book 13, 20 February 1898, 442–443.

20 Littman, “Jews,” 11–12.

21 AIU: Iran, I.B.4, Cazran, 12 of Tishrey, TaRNaH [=8 October 1897], Kazarun community to Baghdad.

22 Elaboration in: AIU: Iran. I.C.3, 1 Adar, year of Be-SaSON [=23 February 1898], Isfahan community to AIU; JBD: ACC/3121/A 013, minute book 13, 17 July 1898; JBD: ACC/3121/GO1/01/003, 48th Annual report for April 1899 (London, 1899), London Committee of Deputies of The British Jews. Session 5658–61—1898–1901, 40–42; FO 60/595, no. 67, 19 July 1898, FO to Durand; FO 60/595, no. 105, 22 September 1898, Durand to FO; AIU: Iran. I.C.3, Ispahan, TaRNaT, received on 19 February 1899, Isfahan community to AIU; Landor, A. H. S., Across Coveted Lands (London, 1902), 292Google Scholar: In 1901, “a Jew was murdered in cold blood a few miles from Isfahan, and his body flung into the river. Although the murder had been witnessed, and the murderer was well known, no punishment was ever inflicted upon him.” See also Landor, Across Coveted Lands, 294–295.

23 AIU: Iran. I.C.3 bis, Kachan, Adar I, TaRSaB [=February or March 1902], Kashan community to AIU.

24 AIU: Iran.I.B.7, Erivan, 1905/1906, Erivan community (Russia) to AIU; AIU: Iran; I.B.18, Ourmiah, month of Av, TaRSaH, received on 19 September 1905, Urumiyyah to AIU; JNL: Microfilm Center, siman 8276, from Urumiyyah, TaRSaU; JNL: Microfilm Center, siman 8276, 3 Menahem Av, TaRSU [=26 July 1906], from Urumiyyah community; AIU: Iran; I.B.18, Ourmiah, rosh hodesh, Sivan, TaRSU [=25 May 1906], Urumiyyah community to AIU.

25 Fihrist-i Asnad-i Qadimi-yi Wizarat-i Umur-i Kharijah-yi Dawran-i Qajariyyah, 1124–1316 HQ (Tehran, 1371), 467.Google Scholar

26 FO 60/585, no. 93, 22 December 1897, Hardinge to FO.

27 FO 60/585, no. 100, 28 December 1897, Hardinge to FO.

28 Sykes, E. C., Through Persia on a Side-Saddle (London, 1898), 66, 143.Google Scholar

29 Sykes, E. C., Persia and its People (London, 1910), 126Google Scholar; Sykes, P. M., Ten Thousand Miles in Persia of Eight Years in Iran (London, 1902), 198Google Scholar: Zoroastrians “are not ill treated nowadays, although still forced to wear sober-coloured clothes, and forbidden to ride in the bazaars.”

30 AIU: Iran.II.C.8, Yezd, Heshvan, MeAH She‘ARIM [=TaRSU=October or November 1905], Yazd community to AIU.

31 FO 60/650, no. 40, 4 March 1902, Hardinge to FO. FO 60/665, no. 3, 6 January 1903, Hardinge to FO; FO 60/665, no. 85, 10 June 1903, Hardinge to FO; FO 60/665, no. 95, 23 June 1903, Hardinge to FO; FO 60/666, no. 102, 9 July 1903, Hardinge to FO; Rabbani, A., “‘Abdu'l-Baha's Proclamation on the Persecution of Baha'is in 1903,” Baha'i Studies Review, 14 (2007): 53–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Momen, M., The Babi and Baha'i Religions 1844–1944 (Oxford, 1981), 363–366.Google Scholar

32 Examples: JBD: ACC/3121/GO1/01/003, 47th Annual Report for April 1898 (London, 1898), session 5655–58—1895–98, London Committee of Deputies of the British Jews, 17 January 1898, Conjoint Jewish Committee to FO, 36–37. JBD: ACC/3121/A 013, minute book 13, 440–441: “inflammatory notices had been posted in the streets and bazaars” of Tehran, “urging the inhabitants to massacre the Israelites on the anniversary of the accession of His Majesty the Shah.” JBD: ACC/3121/BO2/09/009, file 3, 18 November 1897, Kol Israel Haverim of Tehran to AJA; AIU: Iran.XII.E.132, Teheran, Cazes, 31 October 1898, Cazes to AIU; AIU, Bulletin Mensuel, 26 (1898): 195Google Scholar; JBD: ACC/3121/G1/1/5, 56th Annual Report for October 1907 (London, 1907), London Committee of Deputies of the British Jews, session 5664–5667—1904–07, 70.

33 Littman, “Jews,” 11.

34 AIU: Iran. I.C.2, Hamadan, 18 Adar TaRNaT [=28 February 1899], Hamadan community to AIU.

35 AIU: Iran. I.C.3, Ispahan, TaRNaT, received on 19 February 1899, Isfahan community to AIU.

36 AIU: Iran.XII.E.132, Teheran, Cazes, year of ‘ezri me-‘im Hashem ‘oseh shamayim va-ares, Kislev [=November or December 1899], Tehran community to AIU.

37 AIU: Iran.XII.E.132, Teheran, Cazes, year of SeTeR, seder Trumah [=around late January or early February 1900], Kashan community to AIU. A letter from Urumiyyah, possibly from around the end of the nineteenth century, depicts famine and yoqer ha-she‘arim: JNL: Microfilm Center, siman 36965.

38 AIU: Iran.II.E.23, Hamadan, Bassan, 22 Tevet, year of ZMIROT [=21 January 1903], Nihawand community to AIU.

39 JBD: ACC/3121/GO1/01/003, 47th Annual Report for April 1898 (London, 1898). session 5655–58—1895–98. London Committee of Deputies of the British Jews, 8 July 1897, Conjoint Jewish Committee to FO, 34.

40 AIU: Iran. I.B.4, Cazran, 12 Tishrey, 5658 [=8 October 1897], Kazarun community to AIU.

41 Schwarzfuchs, “Qehilat Isfahan Meshava‘t le-‘Ezrah mi-KIH,” 74–8; JBD: ACC/3121/GO1/01/003, 47th Annual Report for April 1898 (London, 1898), session 5655–58—1895–98, London Committee of Deputies of the British Jews, 24 September 1897, FO to Conjoint Jewish Committee, 42–43; AIU: Iran. I.C.3, 1 Adar, year of Be-SaSON [=23 February 1898], Isfahan community to AIU. See also H. Walcher, “In the Shadow of the King: Politics and Society in Qajar Isfahan, 1874–1907” (PhD diss., Yale University, 1999), 397–407. On Sha‘ban 9, 1321 [=31 October 1903] Aqa Najafi arrived in Tehran; he criticized the Jews for not wearing a patch (waslah); see: ‘Abd al-Husayn Khan Sipihr, Yaddashtha-yi Malik al-Muarikhin, ed. by ‘Abd al-Husayn Nawai (n.p., 1368), 41.

42 AIU: Iran.XII.E.132, Teheran, Cazes, year of ‘ezri me-‘im Hashem ‘oseh shamayim va-ares, Kislev [=November or December 1899], Tehran community to AIU.

43 FO 60/636, no. 16, 6 February 1901, Spring-Rice to FO; AIU, Bulletin Semestriel, 62 (1900): 73–75Google Scholar; FO 60/636, no. 23, 7 February 1901, Spring-Rice to FO: “these shops [of wine and arrack] are chiefly owned by Armenians. The rioters, however, turned their attention to the Jews, the Armenian being largely under Russian protection.”

44 AIU: Iran, II.C.4, Kermanchah, 18 July 1904, Masidy to AIU; Kirmanshachi, H., Tahawwulat-i Ijtima‘i-yi Yahudiyan-i Iran dar Qarn-i Bistum (Los Angeles, 2007), 334Google Scholar, 336, 338, 340.

45 JBD: ACC/3121/G1/1/5, 56th Annual Report fro October 1907 (London, 1907) London Committee of Deputies of the British Jews, session 5664–5667—1904–07, 70.

46 Examples of ‘ulama who protected the Jews in Safawid times: Moreen, V. B., Iranian Jewry's Hour of Peril and Heroism (New York and Jerusalem, 1987), 65Google Scholar, 73–74, 90, 92, 98, 129–132.

47 Ha-Levanon, Year 8 (1872): 274.

48 Jewish Chronicle, 4 February 1881, 13b.

49 FO 60/543, no. 96, 12 June 1893, Lascelles to FO. For another case where the imam jum‘ah of Isfahan helped the Jews: FO 60/595, no. 105, 22 September 1898, Durand to FO, enclosure by Aganoor, 3 September 1898.

50 Tsadik, Between Foreigners and Shi‘s, 165–166, 168.

51 AIU, Bulletin Mensuel, 28 (1900): 212, 214; AIU: Iran.II.E.23, Hamadan, Bassan, 23 January 1902, Bassan to AIU.

52 AIU, Bulletin Mensuel, 29 (1901): 58.

53 Landor, Across Coveted Lands, 115–116.

54 Jewish Missionary Intelligence (1902): 184. On him see FO 60/595, no. 14, 28 January 1898, Hardinge to FO (a biographical dictionary, 69).

55 Tsadik, Between Foreigners and Shi‘s, 137–141, 144–148.

56 AIU: Iran.I.C.3, Ispahan, 3 May 1906, Lahana to AIU.

57 Examples from Nasir al-Din Shah's reign are in: Tsadik, Between Foreigners and Shi‘s. On the “increasing power” of the mullahs: FO 60/583, no. 109, 21 December 1897, FO to Hardinge.

58 E.g., Fihrist-i Asnad-i Qadimi-yi Wizarat-i Umur-i Kharijah, 577.

59 JNL: Manuscripts and Archives Dep., 4o. 199, 273, file igrot sh”adarim, no exact date, but under Muzaffar al-Din Shah, Gulpaygan community to Paris and Baron de-Hirsch.

60 AIU: Iran.XII.E.132, Teheran, Cazes, 3 of Tishrey, year of ASTeR [=26 September 1900], Tehran community to AIU. On Cazes, see also: AIU: ibid, 8 of Tishrey, year of ASTeR [=1 October 1900], Tehran community to AIU; AIU: ibid, 12 of month of Rahamim [=Elul], year of SeTeR [=6 September 1900], Tehran community to AIU. AIU: ibid, 13 Heshvan, year of ASTeR [=5 November 1900], Tehran community to AIU; AIU: ibid, 22 Heshvan, TaRSA [=14 November 1900], Tehran community to AIU. Indeed, some of the letters focus on the specific figure of Cazes as the source of the amelioration of the Jews’ plight. On another case, from Hamadan: AIU: Iran. I.C.2, Hamadan, 18 Tevet, TaRSA [=9 January 1901], Hamadan community to AIU; AIU: Iran.II.E.23, Hamadan, Bassan, 4 Shvat TaRSaB [=12 January 1902], Hamadan community to AIU. On another case, from Sinih: AIU: I.B.23, Seneh, 23 Heshvan, TaRSU [=21 November 1905], Sinih community to AIU.

61 Fasai, H., Farsnamah-yi Nasiri (Tehran, 1367), 908, 1091, 1134Google Scholar; Fariwar, M., Hadith-i Yak Farhang, ed. by Cohen, G. (Los Angeles, 2007), 36.Google Scholar

62 AIU, Bulletin Mensuel, 31 (1903): 104–105Google Scholar, 108–109 (including women's professions); AIU, Bulletin Mensuel, 32 (1904): 31–32Google Scholar; Loeb, L., Outcaste; Jewish Life in Southern Iran (New York, London, and Paris, 1977), 82.Google Scholar

63 S. Sirjani, ed., Waqayi‘-yi Ittifaqiyyah (Tehran, 1362), 541 (2 March 1898); Padyavand II, ed. by A. Netzer (Los Angeles, 1997), English section, 150.

64 AIU: Iran.I.C.1, Chiraz, 2 Nisan, TaRNaH [=25 March 1898], Shiraz community to AIU.

65 JBD: ACC/3121/C11/14/027, no date, probably from Bushihr community to JBD.

66 Sirjani, Waqayi‘-yi Ittifaqiyyah, 597–598 (11 May 1899); Padyavand II, 152.

67 Sirjani, Waqayi‘-yi Ittifaqiyyah, 588 (8 November 1899); Padyavand II, 151–152. Apparently the same case: Fariwar, Hadith, 209–211. On ‘Ali Akbar, see Tsadik, Between Foreigners and Shi‘s, 132–136, 140, 153, 183, 189.

68 Sirjani, Waqayi‘-yi Ittifaqiyyah, 616 (26 July 1900); Padyavand II, 153.

69 AIU: Iran.XIV.E148, Teheran, 30 May 1902, Levy Nissim to AIU; AIU, Bulletin Mensuel, 30 (1902): 90–91.Google Scholar

70 Sirjani, Waqayi‘-yi Ittifaqiyyah, 681 (7 August 1902); Padyavand II, 154.

71 AIU, Bulletin Mensuel, 31 (1903): 110–112.Google Scholar

72 Sirjani, Waqayi‘-yi Ittifaqiyyah, 714–715 (28 July 1903); Padyavand II, 154–155. Related issue: AIU, Bulletin Mensuel, 32 (1904): 30–35.Google Scholar

73 Sirjani, Waqayi‘-yi Ittifaqiyyah, 719 (22 September 1903).

74 Sirjani, Waqayi‘-yi Ittifaqiyyah, 728 (22 January 1904); Padyavand II, 155–156.

75 Sirjani, Waqayi‘-yi Ittifaqiyyah, 730 (17 February 1904); Padyavand II, 156.

76 Sipihr, Yaddashtha, 171 (also on the issue of dress with reference to Kirman Zoroastrians), 281.

77 Sirjani, Waqayi‘-yi Ittifaqiyyah, 716 (25 August 1903); Padyavand II, 155.

78 Sirjani, Waqayi‘-yi Ittifaqiyyah, 541 (2 March 1898); Padyavand II, 150.

79 Sirjani, Waqayi‘-yi Ittifaqiyyah, 664 (Dhu al-Qa‘dah 27, 1319=7 March 1902). This case might be related to the following: FO 60/652, no. 20, 23 March 1902, Hardinge to FO. See also al-Dawlah, Zahir, Khatirat wa-Asnad-i Zahir al-Dawlah, ed. by Afshar, I. (Tehran, 1972), 160–161Google Scholar where Hamadan Muslims and Jews petitioned together the Shah regarding the hunger. On the Hamadan Jews petitioning on their own: al-Dawlah, Khatirat, 205.

80 Sirjani, Waqayi‘-yi Ittifaqiyyah, 582 (7 September 1899).

81 Sirjani, Waqayi‘-yi Ittifaqiyyah, 678 (10 July 1902). For a case where a Christian beat a Sayyid's wife: Sirjani, Waqayi‘-yi Ittifaqiyyah, 687 (12 October 1902).

82 Sirjani, Waqayi‘-yi Ittifaqiyyah, 707–708 (28 May 1903). See also: Sirjani, Waqayi‘-yi Ittifaqiyyah, 642 (23 May 1901), 713 (28 July 1903).

83 AIU: Iran. I.E.14, Chiraz, 22 Tevet, TaRSaD [=10 January 1904], Shiraz community to AIU.

84 AIU: Iran. I.E.14, Chiraz, 3 March 1904, Shiraz community to AIU.

85 On this case: AIU, Bulletin Mensuel, 33 (1905): 94–100. AIU: Iran. I.C.1, Chiraz, received by AIU on 17 June 1905, Shouker to AIU.

86 MAE: Correspondance Politique et Commerciale/1897–1918 (nouvelles série), Perse, Box number 53, File: Écoles Français: 1905–07, sub-file: Écoles Israélites en Perse, 7 June 1905, AIU to MAE.

87 MAE: Correspondance Politique et Commerciale/1897–1918 (nouvelles série), Perse, Box number 53, File: Écoles Français: 1905–1907, sub-file: Écoles Israélites en Perse, 7 June, 1905, MAE to Chargé d'Affaires; MAE: Correspondance Politique et Commerciale/1897–1918 (nouvelles série), Perse, Box number 53, File: Écoles Français: 1905–1907, sub-file: Écoles Israélites en Perse, 10 June, 1905, MAE to AIU.

88 AIU: France, XXXV.B.320. a. file “Mme Brandon-Salvador,” 23 June 1905, Grahame to [probably Mme Brandon-Salvador]. In the past, the Shah received a delegation of the AIU for an audience: AIU, Bulletin Mensuel, 30 (1902): 98–99.Google Scholar

89 MAE: Correspondance Politique et Commerciale/1897–1918 (nouvelles série), Perse, Box number 53, File: Écoles Français: 1905–07, sub-file: Écoles Israélites en Perse, 1 July 1905, Chargé d'Affaires to MAE.

90 MAE: Correspondance Politique et Commerciale/1897–1918, 1 July 1905, Chargé d'Affaires to MAE.

91 FO 60/700, no. 237, 1 November 1905, Grant-Duff to FO.

92 FO 60/701, no. 155, 20 November 1905, Grant-Duff to FO.

93 Tsadik, “Legal Status,” 400–401.

94 FO 60/700, no. 254, 3 December 1905, Grant Duff to FO, enclosure: 18 November 1905, Shiraz News.

95 FO 60/700, no. 254, 3 December 1905, Grant Duff to FO, enclosure: no. 82, 15 November 1905, Grahame to Grant Duff.

96 FO 60/700, no. 254, 3 December 1905, Grant Duff to FO, enclosure: no. 83, 15 November 1905, Grahame to Grant Duff.

97 FO 60/700, no. 254, 3 December 1905, Grant Duff to FO, enclosure: no. 84, 16 November 1905, Grahame to Grant Duff.

98 FO 60/700, no. 254, 3 December 1905, Grant Duff to FO, enclosure: 16 November 1905, Grant Duff to Mushir al-Dawlah.

99 FO 60/700, no. 254, 3 December 1905, Grant Duff to FO, enclosure: 18 November 1905, Shiraz News.

100 FO 60/700, no. 254, 3 December 1905, Grant Duff to FO, enclosure: no. 85, 17 November 1905, Grahame to Grant Duff.

101 FO 60/700, no. 254, 3 December 1905, Grant Duff to FO, enclosure: no. 56, 17 November 1905, Grant Duff to Grahame.

102 FO 60/700, no. 254, 3 December 1905, Grant Duff to FO, enclosure: no. 115, 18 November 1905, Grahame to Grant Duff.

103 FO 60/700, no. 254, 3 December 1905, Grant Duff to FO, enclosure: 18 November 1905, Shiraz News.

104 FO 60/700, no. 254, 3 December 1905, Grant Duff to FO, enclosure: no. 88, 20 November 1905, Grahame to Grant Duff; FO 60/701, no. 157, 22 November 1905, Grant-Duff to FO.

105 FO 60/700, no. 254, 3 December 1905, Grant Duff to FO, enclosure: 21 November 1905, Grant Duff to Mushir al-Dawlah.

106 FO 60/700, no. 254, 3 December 1905, Grant Duff to FO, enclosure: 21 November 1905, Mushir al-Dawlah to Grant Duff.

107 FO 60/700, no. 254, 3 December 1905, Grant Duff to FO, enclosure: 22 November 1905, Grant Duff to Mushir al-Dawlah.

108 FO 60/700, no. 254, 3 December 1905, Grant Duff to FO, enclosure: no. 90, 21 November 1905, Grahame to Grant Duff.

109 FO 60/700, no. 254, 3 December 1905, Grant Duff to FO, enclosure: no. 94, 25 November 1905, Grahame to Grant Duff.

110 FO 60/700, no. 254, 3 December 1905, Grant Duff to FO, enclosure: no. 95, 27 November 1905, Grahame to Grant Duff. On this incident: AIU, Bulletin Mensuel, 34 (1906): 16–17.Google Scholar

111 FO 60/700, no. 254, 3 December 1905, Grant Duff to FO, enclosure: no. 96, 2 December 1905, Grahame to Grant Duff.

112 AIU: Iran.I.C.1, Chiraz, 10 Kislev, [TaRSU= 8 December 1905] Shiraz community to AIU.

113 AIU: Iran.I.C.3, Ispahan, 3 May 1906, Lahana to AIU.

114 Cohen, A., Qol Qara va-Elekh (Tel Aviv, 2000), 13.Google Scholar

115 Ha-Cohen, R. H., Avanim Ba-Homah (Jerusalem, 1970), 48.Google Scholar Note that this sources and the previous one may be speaking of the same wave of emigration, but differ on its exact date.

116 Cohen, Qol Qara va-Elekh, 7, 13, 22, 24.

117 Ha-Cohen, Avanim Ba-Homah, 7.

118 Ha-Cohen, Avanim Ba-Homah, 48.

119 Besalel, H., Pirqey Hayim shel Hanah Besalel le-Beyt Bushihri (Jerusalem, 2004), 18.Google Scholar

120 Bar-Osher, A., ed., Ner Le-Michael (Jerusalem, 2007), [4].Google Scholar

121 E.g. AIU: Iran,I.B.18, Ourmiah, month of Av, TaRSaH, received on 19 September 1905, Urumiyyah to AIU.

122 Landor, Across Coveted Lands, 295: “The Jew is looked upon as unclean and untrustworthy by the Persian, who refuses to use him as a solider, but who gladly employs him to do all sorts of dirty jobs which Persian pride would not allow him to do himself.”

123 FO 60/700, no. 254, 3 December 1905, Grant Duff to FO.

124 FO 60/700, no. 254, 3 December 1905, Grant Duff to FO, enclosure: 18 November 1905, Shiraz News.

125 AIU, Bulletin Mensuel, 31 (1903): 102.Google Scholar

126 AIU: Iran.I.C.2, Hamadan, 5 March 1903, Bassan to AIU; AIU, , Bulletin Mensuel, 34 (1906): 162–163Google Scholar: including grand ‘ulama who speak with good terms on the Jews.

127 AIU: Iran.I.B.7, Erivan, 1905/06, Erivan community (Russia) to AIU; AIU: Iran. I.B.18, Ourmiah, month of Av, TaRSaH, received on 19 September 1905, Urumiyyah to AIU; JNL: Microfilm Center, siman 8276, from Urumiyyah, TaRSaU; JNL: Microfilm Center, siman 8276, 3 Menahem Av, TaRSU [=26 July 1906], from Urumiyyah community; AIU: Iran. I.B.18, Ourmiah, rosh hodesh Sivan, TaRSU [=25 May 1906], Urumiyyah community to AIU.

128 AIU: Iran, II.C.4, Kermanchah, 18 July 1904, Masidy to AIU: including abuse and ill-treatment by a certain member of the ‘ulama.

129 AIU: Iran.I.C.3, Ispahan, 25 June 1905, Lahana to AIU.

130 AIU: Iran. VIII.E.84, Ispahan, received on 23 July 1905, [probably to AIU]: indicating that they are in galut and sa‘ar, exile and sorrow.

131 AIU: Iran.XVI.E, 160, Teheran, 20 August 1905, Mme Rosanis to AIU. AIU: Iran.XVI.E, 160, Teheran, 12 September 1905, Mme Rosanis to AIU.

132 Anet, C., Through Persia in a Motor-Car, trans. by Ryley, M. B. (London, 1907), 221Google Scholar; Anet, C., “Les Écoles Israélites en Perse,” L'universe Israélite, 61 (1905): 467.Google Scholar

133 Tsadik, “Legal Status,” 406–408. Of relevance is: Kirmani, N., Tarikh-i Bidari-yi Iranian (n.p., 1357), vol. 2, 35.Google Scholar

134 E.g., Netzer, A., “Yahudiyan-i Shiraz dar Sal-i 1910,” in Padyavand II, ed. by Netzer, A.(Los Angeles, 1997)Google Scholar, Persian section, 265–266, English section, 186.

135 Zahir al-Dawlah, Khatirat, 160.

136 Iran; Political Diaries, 1881–1965, ed. by Burrell, R. (Archive Editors, 1997), vol. 3, 52.Google Scholar

137 E.g., Levi, H., Tarikh-i Yahud-i Iran (Tehran, 1960), vol. 3, 830–831Google Scholar, 850.

138 This is not to say that elements associated with the constitution did not occasionally target Jews; the Bakhtiyaris in 1909 are one example for this. See Afary, J., “From Outcastes to Citizens; Jews in Qajar Iran,” in Esther's Children, ed. by Sarshar, H. (Beverly Hills, 2002), 171.Google Scholar

139 Wishard, J. G., Twenty Years in Persia; A Narrative of Life under the Last Three Shahs (New York, Chicago, Toronto, London, and Edinburgh, 1908), 171.Google Scholar

140 Wishard, Twenty Years in Persia, 171, 173.

141 Hume-Griffith, M. E., Behind the Veil in Persia and Turkish Arabia (London, 1909), 29.Google Scholar

142 Cohen, Ha-Qehilah, 19–21; Kirmanshachi, Tahawwulat, 340–347.

143 Littman, “Jews,” 12–13. Although various social elements (some lutis, Sayyids, men of the Qashqai tribe, certain soldiers; general men, women, and children) were involved in the attack on the Jews, certain Muslims provided assistance to the Jews in its aftermath, including: Qawam al-Mulk (“the temporary governor”), “a wealthy Muslim lady,” Mirza Ibrahim (a high-ranking Shi‘i cleric), the imam jum‘ah, and Nasr al-Dawlah. B. ‘Aqili, Ruz Shumar-i Tarikh-i Iran az Mashrutah ta Inqilab-i Islami (Tehran, 1372), vol. 1, 77Google Scholar; Netzer, “Yahudiyan-i Shiraz,” 259–280; Loeb, Outcaste, 33; Kirmanshachi, Tahawwulat, 366.

144 Sykes, Persia and its People, 128.

145 Omid, D., Emunah we-Tiqwah (Jerusalem, 1981), 11.Google Scholar