Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T10:53:11.247Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Issues and Paradoxes in the Development of Iranian National Cinema: An Overview

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2022

Reza J. Poudeh  and
M. Reza Shirvani
Reza J. Poudeh
Affiliation:
Texas Southern University Tavis Smiley School of Communication in Houston, Texas
M. Reza Shirvani
Affiliation:
Isfahan, Iran
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Contemporary Iranian cinema has enjoyed wide success on the international scene—winning awards at film festivals, receiving praise by critics, and being screened in many countries around the world. But this success has another side to it: at home in Iran, the movie theater attendance is in decline and a range of players, including individuals, policymakers and government entities continue to meddle in shaping its future. Throughout the twentieth century and during the two decades of post-revolutionary successes abroad, Iranian cinema developed its own unique style and aesthetic. A cinema which was sometimes nurtured and financially encouraged by the government, yet at other times censored or banned by it. This paper provides a brief survey of the history of Iranian cinema since the 1900s in order to reveal the paradoxical issues both propelling and bedeviling its development and the role of principal actors involved in fashioning an Iranian national cinema.

Type
Articles
Information
Iranian Studies , Volume 41 , Issue 3 , June 2008 , pp. 323 - 341
Copyright
Copyright © The International Society for Iranian Studies 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

The authors would like to express their gratitude to Zaven Ghookasian, Bahman Farmanara, Bahman Zonoozi, Minoo Farshchi, and Fatemeh Motamed Aria for their assistance in writing this paper. Our special thanks goes to Dr. Seyed Hossein Shahidi for his exceptional assistance in editing the manuscript.

References

1 Mehrabi, Massoud, Tarikh-e Cinema-ye Iran: Az Aaghaz ta Saal-e 1357 [The History of Iranian Cinema: From Beginning to 1979], (Tehran, 1370/1992), 14–15Google Scholar.

2 Mehrabi, Tarikh-e Cinema-ye Iran, 32.

3 The term FilmFarsi was coined by Hushang Kavusi. See Mehrabi, Tarikh-e Cinema-ye Iran, 563.

4 Mehrabi, Tarikh-e Cinema-ye Iran, 115.

5 Talebinezhad, Ahmad, Yek Etefagh-e Saadeh: Moruri bar Jarayan-e Mouj-e Nou dar Cinema ye Iran [A Simple Event: A Review of the New Wave Trend in Iranian Cinema] (Tehran, 1373/1994), 29Google Scholar.

6 Mehrabi, Tarikh-e Cinema-ye Iran, 267.

7 Talebinezhad, Yek Etefagh-e Saadeh: Moruri bar Jarayan-e Mouj-e Nou dar Cinema ye Iran, 16.

8 A speech by Ayatollah Khomeini declaring that the Islamic Republic was “not against cinema but against obscenities” paved the way for the acceptance of cinema as a legitimate form of art and entertainment.

9 Farabi Cinema Foundation distributes films on Video Home System video cassettes, or disks through its own Moaseseh-ye Rasaneh-ha-ye Tasviri (the Visual Media Institute).

10 The Art Center was established to produce movies based on Islamic values as the result of the victory of the Revolution. See Shirmohammadi, Jamal, Syasatgozaran ya Syasatbazan-e Cinema-ye Ba'd az Enghelab [Policymakers or Politicians of Cinema After the Revolution] (Tehran, 1997), 277Google Scholar.

11 Afkhami now (2007) believes that the national Iranian cinema is more or less dead. He argues that almost all governments after the revolution have worked toward the weakening of the Iranian national cinema without realizing that this would lead to surrendering to American commercial cinema for entertaining the public. See Etemaad Melli, 13 Esfand 1385/4 March 2007, 316:12.

12 Notably Seyed Mohammad Beheshti.

13 During his 1980s membership at the Art Center (Hozeh Honari), Makhmalbaf had taken a hard line against pre-Revolution filmmakers and artists, especially Bahram Bayzaei, Abbas Kiarostami, and Nasser Taqvaei. Later on he regretted his stand. See Shir-Mohammadi, Syasat Gozaran ya Syasat Bazan–e Cinema–ye Baad az Enghelab, 283.

14 Cinema policymakers such as Fakhreddin Anvar and Seyed-Mohammad Beheshti and filmmakers like Javad Shamaqdari (the current President Ahmadinejad's advisor in artistic affairs), and Jamal Shoorjeh. Similar claims had been made by government officials before the Revolution about Dariush Mehrjuei's Gav (the Cow).

15 Information provided to the author by Bahman Zonoozi, 17 May 2007. Quoted with permission.

16 See Farabi Cinema Foundation website, http://www.fcf.ir/english/cultural_maanagara.htm, retrieved 12 May 2007.

17 For example, the screening of Do Nime ye Seeb (Two Halves of the Apple, 1992) by Kianoush Ayyari was interrupted in a number of movie theaters in Tehran by religious hardliners in 1993. About 60 people entered Qods movie theater in Isfahan and interrupted a screening on 5 December 1997. In 1995, Adam Barfi (The Snow Man), and in 2004, Marmoulak (Lizard) faced similar objections. Quoted from film critic Zaven Ghookasian, with permission.

18 Houshmand Honarkar, “Cinema ye Iran dar Dore ye Eslahat” [Iranian Cinema During Reforms], 2 August 2005, http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian/arts/story/2005/08/printable/050802_pm-khatami-cinema.sht, retrieved 6 October 2006.

19 There were eighty-two movie theaters in Tehran in 2001, compared to 110 in 1976. After the revolution at least ten movie theaters closed down, either due to loss of business or converting to more profitable businesses in Tehran.

20 Ahmad Masjed Jamei, President Khatami's Minster of Culture and Islamic Guidance during 2000–2005 says he worked to ease restrictions on filmmakers. See a two-part interview with Masjed Jamei by Ali Asghar Seyed-Abadi and Guisu Faghfouri in Etemaad Melli, 12 Bahman 1385/1 February 2007, 291: 8–9 and 23 Bahman1385/12 February 2007, 299: 8–9.

21 Honarkar, Cinema ye Iran dar Dore ye Eslahat, 1.

22 Ibid., 2.

23 Sayed Mohammad Beheshti, Fakhreddin Anvar and Mohammad Mehdi Heydarian. Beheshti played a significant role in establishing Farabi Cinema Foundation.

24 Currently Reza Mirkarimi is the CEO, and Ali Moallem, the Deputy CEO. In the past filmmakers like Mohammad Ali Najafi and Kamal Tabrizi, and Sifollah Da'd have held offices in Khaneh-ye Cinema. See Khaneh-ye Cinema's website at www.khanehcinema.ir/site

25 From author's interview with Bahman Zonoozi, 12 April 2007.

26 E-mail received by the authors, 17 May 2007.

27 See the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance Cinematic and Audiovisual Affairs Deputy's webpage at http://www.ershad.gov.ir/index.php?option=com_content&view=section&id=7&ltemid, retrieved 12 April 2008.

28 The state-run television showed over forty foreign films during the 1386/2007 Norouz (Iranian new year) holidays, a number of them American: Panic Room (2002), Firewall (2006), Cars (2005), and Runaway Jury (2003).

29 Information provided to the author by Bahman Farmanara, 29 March 2007. Quoted with permission.

30 Abbas Kiarostami, one of the most prolific Iranian filmmakers, remarked at a press conference during the 25th International Fajr Film Festival that banning and censoring was no longer effective, because people would have access to the films through their illegal reproduction on video compact discs (VCDs) and digital versatile discs (DVDs). He believes banning film only hurts the independent cinema in Iran. See Etemaad Melli, 23 Bahman 1385/12 February 2007, 291: 8.

31 Currently (2007), the average budget for a movie is $25 million. Information provided to the author by cinematographer Bahman Zonoozi, 17 May 2007. Quoted with permission.

32 Information received by the author from the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance, 26 April 2007.

33 See the website for the office of the Deputy Minister of Culture and Islamic Guidance Cinematic for Audiovisual Affairs, http://www.ershad.gov.ir/index.php?option=com_content&view=section&id=7&ltemid, retrieved 12 April 2008.

34 According to UNESCO's Institute for Statistics, Iran had 448 movie theaters in 1975. By 1995, the number had been reduced to 287. The annual attendance was recorded at 163 million in 1980, shrinking to 26 million in 1995. See http://www.uis.unesco.org/TEMPLATE/html/CultAndCom/Table_IV_13_Asia.html, retrieved 7 May 2007. The Cinema Shahr Institute, a government entity overseeing the reconstruction of movie theaters in the country, reports remodeling of some of the old movie theaters, or construction of new ones in Iran. Still, the number of active movie theaters is less than the pre-Revolution period. For current information on the status of movie theaters in Iran, see Cinema Shahr Institute's website, http://www.cinemashahr.ir (in Persian).

35 See Cinema Shahr Institute's Website at http://www.cinemashahr.ir (in Iranian), retrieved 24 April 2007.

36 Information provided to the author by Zaven Ghookasian, 17 April 2007. Quoted with permission.

37 According to Cinema Shahr Institute currently (2007) sixty-five theaters are being built in Iran. See Cinema Shahr Institute's website, http://www.cinemashahr.ir/saloons_list.asp (in Persian), retrieved 24 April 2007.

38 See the following Cinema Shahr Institute's web page for comments made by movie theater owners http://www.cinemashahr.ir/news_view.asp?nid=54&p=1 (in Persian), retrieved 24 April 2007.

39 Houshmand Honarkar, “Gozari az Jashnvare ye Pishin be Jashnvare ye Pish-e Rou ye Film-e Fajr” [From the Past Fajr Festival to the Present one: A Review], 30 January 2007, http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian/arts/story/2007/01/printable/070128_mv-hh-fajr-film.shtml (in Persian), retrieved 19 February 2007.

40 See Cinema Shahr Institute's website at http://www.cinemashahr.ir/news_view.asp?nid=54&p=1 (in Persian), retrieved 24 April 2007.

41 Interview with Ahmad Masjed Jamei by Ali Asghar Sayed-Abadi and Guisu Faghfouri, “Shabe Eid-e Khoshi Nadashtim Aan Chand Saal,” [We Didn't Have Happy New Year's Eves Those Years] in Etemaad Melli, 23 Bahman 1385/12 February 2007, 299: 8.

42 Jalladeau, Alain, “Asia's magic lantern,” UNESCO Courier (2000), 365:20Google Scholar.

43 See Dupont, Joan, “Breathless West, brilliant East,” UNESCO Courier (2000), 365: 22Google Scholar.

44 Nichols, Bill, “Discovering Form, Inferring Meaning: New Cinemas and the Film Festival Circuit”, Film Quarterly (1994), 47:20CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

45 Ibid., 21. Recently Iranian movies and television series increasingly center on religious characters and issues, indicating a shift in bringing the role of religion and religious into cultural and social discourses.

46 Ibid., 26.

47 See Mohammad Atebbai, Bist va Panj Sal Cinema ye Iran: Javaez va Hozur-e Binolmelali [Twenty-Five Years of Iranian Cinema: Awards and International Presence], (1382/2003) for a complete list of international awards won by Iranian films.

48 Author Jamal Shirmohammadi believes success in representing Iranian cinema at international festivals was one of the main accomplishments of Seyed Mohammad Beheshti, the first director of Farabi Cinema Foundation. Whether he had the approval of the Iranian government is not clear. Beheshti's other major accomplishment, according to Shirmohammadi, was wining the battle against a more hardline group at the Art Center in setting up direction and policies for the Iranian cinema. See Shirmohammadi, Syasatgozaran Ya Syasabazan-e Cinema-ye Ba'd az Enghelab, 312.

49 For example, Jafar Panahi's Dayereh (Circle, 1999) and Offside (2005) and Kiarostami's Dah (Ten, 2002) are still banned in Iran although they have been shown in other countries.

50 Mehrnaz Saeed-Vafa, “Kiarostami” in Senses of Cinema, May 2002, http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/02/kiarostami.html, retrieved 17 May 2007.

51 Eric Egan, The Films of Makhmalbaf:Cinema, Politics & Culture in Iran (Washington, DC, 2005), 15.

52 Comments provided to the author, 17 April 2007. Quoted with permission.

53 See Variety webpage, at http://www.variety.com/index.asp?layout=Cannes2007&jump=story&id=1061&articleid=VR1117964951&cs=1, retrieved 17 May 2007.

54 See film critic Ahmad Talebinezhad's comment in Pouria Mahrouyan, “Panjah va Nohomin Jashnvareh ye Cannes; Bedouneh Film -e Irani.” [Fifty-Ninth Cannes Film Festival; Without Iranian Films], 24 April 2006 at http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian/arts/story/2006/060424_pm-cannes06.shtml, retrieved 10 June 2006. Also see Ali Jaafar, “Iranians Return to Croisette: Boycott Lifted”, in Variety, 15 May 2007 at http://www.variety.com/index.asp?layout=Cannes2007&jump=story&id=1061&articleid=VR1117964951&cs=1, retrieved 17 May 2007.

55 “Kamyabiha ye Andak va Nakamiha ye Besyar” [Few Successes and Many Disappointments]. Vaghaye Ettefaghiyeh, 6 Khordad 1383/26 May 2004, 15. (The author has translated these passages from the original Persian).

56 After Mr Ahmadinejad took over as president in June 2005, a number of pro-Islamic Republic filmmakers such as Hatami Kia, Majidi, and Darvish, asked the spiritual leader of Iran, Ayatollah Khamenei, to prevent radical Muslim filmmakers such as Shamaghdari, Shoorjeh, and Salahshour from being appointed to the key positions in cinematic affairs. They succeeded.

57 E-mail interview with Bahman Farmanara, 29 April 2007.

58 A good number of films in the competition were selected from war film genre, labeled “Sacred Defense” (Defa'-e Moqaddas), and spiritual or religious films labeled “Ma'nagara”. The best film award was given to a war film, The Third Day. Other awards mainly went to war or religious films. See Houshmand Honarkar, “Rooz -e Sevvom Behtarin Film -e Jashnvareh Shod” [The Third Day Became the Best Film of the Festival], 11 February 2007, http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian/arts/story/2007/02/printable/070211_v-hh-fajr-film-end.shtml, retrieved 2 February 2007.

59 Interview with Behrouz Afkhami by Mohammad Tajik, “Sha'ne Kar -e Honari ra Balatar az Syasat Midanam,” [I Believe Working in Arts is More Dignified Than Working in Politics], Etemaad Melli, Esfand 1385/4 March 2007, 316:13.

60 See “Zorourat -e Cinema ye Enteghadi” [the Need for a Critical Cinema], Etemaad Melli, 12 Bahman1385/1 February 2007, 291:8. (The author has translated these passages from the original Persian.)

61 Etemaad Melli, 12 Bahman 1385/1February 2007, 291:9. (The author has translated these passages from the original Persian.)

62 Vaghaye Ettefaghiyeh, 6 Khordad 1383/26 May 2004, 15. (The author has translated these passages from the original Persian.)

63 Ibid.

64 Comments provided to the author, 17 April 2007. Quoted with permission. (The author has translated these passages from the original Persian.)

65 Zaven Ghookasian's interview with Fatemeh Motamed Aria, received by the author on 17 April 2007. Quoted with permission. (The author has translated these passages from the original Persian.)