² Ansari, Abdolmaboud Iranian Immigrants in the United States: A Case Study of Dual Marginality. Associated Faculty Press. 1988Google Scholar; Askari, Hossein Cummings, John T. and Izbudak, Mehmet “Iran's Migration of Skilled Labor to the United States.” Iranian Studies 10:3-39CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cummings and Izbudak, 1977; Jamshid Momeni, “Size and Distribution of Iranian Ethnic Group in the United States: 1980.” Iran Nameh, 19842:17-21.; Sabagh, Georges and Bozorgmehr, Mehdi “Are the Characteristics of Exiles Different from Immigrants? The Case of Iranians in Los Angeles.” Sociology and Social Research, 1987, 71:77-84.Google Scholar

³ Lorentz, John H. and Wertime, John T. “Iranians.” Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, edited by Thernstrom, Stephen. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.1980, pp. 521-524.Google Scholar They report that the number of Iranian immigrants entering the U.S. was 130 during the 1842-1903 period, increasing to 780 between 1925 and 1932. According to these authors, immigration data on Iranians are not available for 1904-1924 and 1933-1944 periods. Therefore, only 910 Iranians immigrated to the U.S. for nearly a century (1842-1944). As there are no references to sources for these data in Lorenz and Wertime (1980), the origins of these figures are unknown. Although data on Iranian immigrants only were reported by INS for 1949, their number was very small (195). In any case, it is clear that Iranian immigration to the United States before 1950 was negligible.

⁴ Katouzian, Homa The Political Economy of Modern Iran. New York:New York University Press, 1981CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵ Ervand Abrahamian, op. cit.

⁶ R.Keddie, Nikki Roots of Revolution: An Interpretive History of Modern Iran. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981Google Scholar

⁷ Central Bank of Iran 1977/78, Annual Report. (Tehran.)

⁸ Katouzian, op. cit.

⁹ Ervand Abrahamian, op. cit.

¹⁰ Halliday, Fred Iran: Dictatorship and Development. New York: Penguin, 1979, pp. 222Google Scholar

¹¹ Iran Almanac and Book of Facts Thirteenth Edition. Tehran: Echo of Iran, 1974.Google Scholar

¹² Johnson, Gail C. High Level Manpower in Iran. New York: Praeger, 1980.Google Scholar

¹³ It is likely that the 1979/80 count of Iranian students was more complete than in other years because these students were singled out by the INS to show proof of school enrollment during the “Iranian hostage crisis.” Nevertheless, the IIE student census must have undercounted Iranian students, since the INS identified 56,694 in 1980. Even the INS figure is not reliable. During the Iranian hostage crisis, President Carter asked the INS for an exact count of Iranian students in the U.S., but the agency was unable to furnish a figure. This has become known as “the most widely publicized lack of statistics” on immigration (Levine, Daniel Hill, Kenneth and Warren, Robert eds. Immigration Statistics: A Story of Neglect. Washington, D.C.: National Academy press, 1985, p 68).Google Scholar

¹⁴ Institute of International Education(IIE), Open Doors: Annual Report on International Education Exchange. New York: IIE, 1977/78-1982/83.Google Scholar

¹⁵ IIE, op. cit.

¹⁶ UNESCO, 1970-1984

¹⁷ Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) 1978-86 Statistical Yearbooks. Washington, D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Ibid., 1980:7

¹⁹ Turkey is among the few countries that do not require visas from Iranians. Consequently, according to INS tapes, the number of Iranian new arrivals who came through Turkey to the U.S. increased from 6 in 1979 to 536 in 1986.

²⁰ Refugee Reports, “ Statistical Issue.” December, 1986, 7:12.

²¹ See Appendix I for an explanation of the procedure followed to obtain the population estimate.

²² Los Angeles Times, “In Iran, U.S. Is Still the Great Satan.’” March 10, 1986, part I, p. 14.

²³ Los Angeles Times, “Creators of Iranian Yellow Pages Let Culture Do Talking.” January 12, 1985, part II, p. 6.; and “Poetry Links Iranians to Lost Home.” September 28, 1983, part V, p. 1; 1986, op. cit.; and Time, “The New Ellis Island.” June 1983, 13:18-25.

²⁴ Iran News “In the Mirror of Exile” (in Persian).October 20,1987, pp. 15, 19, 56.

²⁵ In general, an SMSA includes one or more counties which have certain metropolitan characteristics and commuting patterns.

²⁶ U.S. Congress, 1965

²⁷ Since there is some evidence that the vast majority of Iranians in the U.S. are of urban origin, comparisons made with urban population of Iran are more meaningful than with the total population.

²⁸ Sabagh, Georges Light, Ivan and Bozorgmehr, Mehdi “Emergent Ethnicity: Iranians in Los Angeles.” ISSR Quarterly, 1986, 3:7-10.Google Scholar

²⁹ See Table 3 for sources.

³⁰ U.S. Bureau of the Census, U.S. Census of Population and Housing, 1980: Foreign-Born Population in the United States. [Microfiche] / prepared by the Bureau of the Census. Washington, D.C.: The Bureau [producer and distributor], 1985.

³¹ The rate of labor force participation of Iranian females is lower than that of both native and recent immigrant females.

³² Sabagh and Bozorgmehr, 1986, op. cit.

³³ Light, Ivan and Bonacich, Edna Immigrant Entrepreneurs. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³⁴ The rate for natives includes farmers who are mostly self-employed. (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1984, op. cit.)

³⁵ Light and Bonacich, 1988, op. cit.

³⁶ The lower mean income of natives and recent immigrants could be partly attributed to their much higher ratio of females to males in the labor force and the much lower income of women compared to men, particularly among natives. (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1984, op. cit.

³⁷ About 90 percent of recent Indian immigrants know English well or very well, 46.1 percent have a graduate college degree, and 50.4 percent have managerial and professional occupations (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1984, op. cit.).

³⁸ The rate of self-employment for immigrants from India was about 5 percent. Of course, students among Indian immigrants depressed the income of the group as a whole (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1984, op. cit.).