¹ This song's video clip claims that the lyrics were written by the great tenth-century AD epic poet Ferdowsi. Needless to say, Ferdowsi never referred to “the Aryan race,” and this claim is grossly fallacious. The lyrics are taken from two poems by Sarkhosh, Mostafa, “peyk-e mehr and khàneh-ye mehr,” in Zabàn-e Ashk [the Language of Tear], ed. Sarkhosh, Mostafa (Tehran, 1343/1964)Google Scholar.

² Taqizadeh, Hasan, Khatàbeh-ye Àqà-ye Seyyed Hasan Taqizàdeh dar Mozu'e Akhz-e Tamaddon-e Khàreji va Àzàdi, Vatan, Mellat, Tasàhol [Seyyed Hasan Taqizadeh's Lectures on the Subject of Grasping Foreign Civilization, Freedom, Country, Nation, Tolerance] (Tehran, 1339/1960), 36Google Scholar.

³ Taqizadeh, Khatàbeh-ye, 37.

⁴ In Kayhan International, 19 September 1973, quoted in Bayat-Philipp, Mangol, “A Phoenix Too Frequent: Historical Continuity in Modern Iranian Thought,” Asian and African Studies, 12 (1978): 211Google Scholar.

⁵ Private discussion between Anthony Parsons and Homa Katouzian, 1987, conveyed to the author by Homa Katouzian, 18 August 2009.

⁶ Lincoln gives an overview of these publications. See Lincoln, Bruce, “Rewriting the German War God: Georges Dumézil, Politics and Scholarship in the Late 1930s,” History of Religions, 37, no. 3 (1998): 188CrossRefGoogle Scholar, footnote 4.

⁷ The same situation is prevalent within Hindu nationalist circles in India, but is outside of the scope of this article. The interested reader can refer to two excellent publications: Fussman, Gérard, “Entre Fantasmes, Science et Politique: L'entrée des Aryas en Inde' Annales. Histoire,” Sciences Sociales, 58, no. 4 (2003)Google Scholar; and Trautmann, Thomas R., Aryans and British India (Berkeley, CA, 1997)Google Scholar.

⁸ Arvidsson, Stefan, Aryan Idols: Indo-European Mythology as Ideology and Science (Chicago, 2006), 21Google Scholar.

⁹ There is some consensus on the mythological aspect of Aryanism. See these two seminal works: Poliakov, Léon, Le Mythe Aryen: Essai sur les Sources du Racisme et des Nationalismes (Brussels, 1987)Google Scholar; and Arvidsson, Aryan Idols.

¹⁰ Iran and India were by turns seen as either the idealized native soil of Aryans, or home to degenerate mixed-raced people. Gobineau for instance thought that the “Iranian nation” was composed of a Persian race under heavy Semitic and Turkish influence. See Gobineau, Arthur Comte de, Trois Ans en Asie; de 1855 à 1858 (Paris, 1923), 2: 20Google Scholar.

¹¹ See Poliakov, Mythe Aryen; Arvidsson, Aryan Idols. It must be stressed that many scholars had already taken notice of the similarities between European vernaculars and some Asian languages before Jones. See Koerner, Konrad, “Observations on the Sources, Transmission, and Meaning of 'Indo-European' and Related Terms in the Development of Linguistics,” in Papers from the 3rd International Conference on Historical Linguistics, Amsterdam studies in the theory and history of linguistic science, IV: Current issues in linguistic theory, 13 (Amsterdam, 1982), 154–55Google Scholar.

¹² The talk was published in 1768 in Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, Vol. 31, partly quoted in Siegert, Hans, “Zur Geschichte der Begriffe ‘Arier’ und ‘arisch,’” Wörter und Sachen, 4 (1941–42): 86Google Scholar.

¹³ Siegert, “Zur Geschichte der Begriffe ‘Arier’ und ‘arisch,’” 88–89.

¹⁴ Arvidsson, Aryan Idols, 21–22.

¹⁵ Koerner, “Observations on the Sources and Meaning of ‘Indo-European,’” 170.

¹⁶ Siegert, “Zur Geschichte der Begriffe ‘Arier’ und ‘arisch,’” 73.

¹⁷ In Siegert, “Zur Geschichte der Begriffe ‘Arier’ und ‘arisch.’”

¹⁸ See Siegert, “Zur Geschichte der Begriffe ‘Arier’ und ‘arisch,’” 75–79. On the different uses of these terms see Koerner, “Observations on the Sources and Meaning of ‘Indo-European.’”

¹⁹ Quoted in Koerner, “Observations on the Sources and Meaning of ‘Indo-European,’” 170–71.

²⁰ Rawlinson, George, The Origin of Nations (New York, 1881), 176Google Scholar.

²¹ Rawlinson, The Origin of Nations.

²² Poliakov, Mythe Aryen, 217.

²³ Friese, Kai, “The Aryan Handshake,” Transition, no. 83 (2000): 8Google Scholar.

²⁴ Arvidsson, Aryan Idols, 52.

²⁵ Arvidsson, Aryan Idols, 295.

²⁶ See Gobineau, Arthur Comte de, Essai sur l'Inégalité des Races Humaines (Paris, 1853)Google Scholar. See also Poliakov, Mythe Aryen, 245–88.

²⁷ “American Anthropological Association Statement on ‘Race', May 17, 1998,” http://www.aaanet.org/stmts/racepp.htm.

²⁸ See “American Anthropological Association Statement on ‘Race’, May 17, 1998”.

²⁹ Michael Banton's works are key in this regard. See Banton, Michael, The Idea of Race (London, 1977)Google Scholar; and idem, Racial and Ethnic Competition, Comparative ethnic and race relations series (Cambridge, 1983)Google Scholar.

³⁰ Ruhlen, Merritt, On the Origin of Languages: Studies in Linguistic Taxonomy (Stanford, CA, 1994), 9Google Scholar.

³¹ Greenberg, Joseph, Indo-European and its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family, 2 vols (Stanford, CA, 2000 and 2002)Google Scholar.

³² Friese, “Aryan Handshake,” 29.

³³ Rawlinson, The Origin of Nations, 86–87.

³⁴ Sykes, Percy M., A History of Persia, 3rd ed. (London, 1951), 1: 501Google Scholar.

³⁵ Kaiwar, Vasant, “The Aryan Model of History and the Oriental Renaissance: The Politics of Identity in an Age of Revolutions, Colonialism and Nationalism,” in Antinomies of Modernity: Essays on Race, Orient, Nation, ed. Kaiwar, Vasant and Mazumdar, Sucheta (Durham, NC and London, 2003), 24Google Scholar.

³⁶ This fundamental text of Indian nationalism provides a good illustration: Banerjea, Surendranath, “The Study of Indian History,” in Nationalism in Asia and Africa, ed. Kedourie, Elie (London, 1970), 225–44Google Scholar. For a detailed study of the topic see Trautmann, Aryans and British India.

³⁷ Alp, Tekin, “The Restoration of Turkish History,” in Nationalism in Asia and Africa, ed. Kedourie, Elie (New York, 1970), 214Google Scholar.

³⁸ Alp, “The Restoration of Turkish History,” 219.

³⁹ Katouzian has reached similar conclusions. See Katouzian, Homa, “Problems of Political Development in Iran: Democracy, Dictatorship or Arbitrary Government?,” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 22, no. 1–2 (1995): 16–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁰ It is useful to note that although nezhàd is an ancient word that often occurs in literature, its contemporary use is unmistakably that of “race” in the modern European sense.

⁴¹ Kermani, Mirza Aqa Khan, Seh Maktub [Three Letters], ed. Choubine, Bahram (Frankfurt, 2005), 180–81Google Scholar.

⁴² Kermani, Seh Maktub, 387.

⁴³ Kermani, Seh Maktub, 269.

⁴⁴ Quoted in Bayat-Philipp, Mangol, “Mirza Aqa Khan Kirmani: a Nineteenth Century Persian Nationalist,” Middle Eastern Studies, 10, no. 1 (1974): 48Google Scholar.

⁴⁵ Kermani, Mirza Aqa Khan, Sad Khatàbeh [One Hundred Lectures], ed. Vohouman, Harun (Los Angeles, 1386/2007), 56Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ Mann, Oskar, “Kàveh va Derafsh-e Kàviyàni” [Kaveh and his Standard], Kàveh, 24 January 1916: 3Google Scholar.

⁴⁷ Moreover, Taqizadeh defines “Aryans” as people living in Central Asia in prehistoric times that gave birth to Indians and Iranians, and explicitly rejects the use of the word to refer to all Indo-Europeans as “sometimes can be seen in Iranian newspapers and books.” See Hasan Taqizadeh (?), “Khiyàlàt-e Gunàgun” [Various Beliefs], Kàveh, 3 October 1921: footnote 1.

⁴⁸ Taqizadeh, Hasan, “Nowruz-e Jamshidi” [Jamshidian Nowrouz], Kàveh, 18 April 1916: 2Google Scholar.

⁴⁹ Sadiq, Isa, Tàrikh-e Farhang-e Iràn [Cultural History of Iran] (Tehran, 1336/1957), 31Google Scholar.

⁵⁰ Shafaq, Sadeq Rezazadeh, Tàrikh-e Adabiyyàt-e Iràn barày-e Dabirestànhà [Literary History of Iran for High School Students] (Tehran, 1342/1963), 5–6Google Scholar.

⁵¹ Marashi, Afshin, Nationalizing Iran: Culture, Power, and the State, 1870–1940, 1st ed. (Seattle, 2008), 99Google Scholar.

⁵² Marashi, Nationalizing Iran, 101.

⁵³ Pirniya, Hasan, Tàrikh-e Iràn-e Qadim: az Àqàz tà Enqeràz-e Sàsàniyàn [History of Ancient Iran: from the Beginnings to the Fall of the Sasanians] ([Tehran?], 1928?), 8Google Scholar.

⁵⁴ Pirniya, Tàrikh-e Iràn-e Qadim, 8–10.

⁵⁵ Pirniya, Tàrikh-e Iràn-e Qadim, 12.

⁵⁶ Pirniya, Tàrikh-e Iràn-e Qadim, 14 and 16.

⁵⁷ Farhang, Vezàrat-e (Ministry of Culture), Ketàb-e Chahàrom-e Ebtedàyi (4th Grade Textbook) (Tehran, 1310/1931), 276Google Scholar.

⁵⁸ Ma'àref, Vezàrat-e (Ministry of Education), Joqràfiyà-ye Panj Qat'eh barày-e Tadris dar Sàl-e Sheshom [Geography in Five Parts for Teaching at Sixth Grade], 6th ed. (Tehran, 1316/1937), 87Google Scholar.

⁵⁹ Quoted by Katouzian, Homa, ‘Introduction,’ in Kasravi, Ahmad, Qiyàm-e Sheikh Mohammad Khiyàbàni [The Revolt of Sheikh Mohammad Khiyabani], ed. Katouzian, Homa (Tehran, 1376/1998), 39–40Google Scholar.

⁶⁰ Lenczowski, George, Russia and the West in Iran, 1918–1948: a Study in Big-Power Rivalry (New York, 1949), 162Google Scholar.

⁶¹ Poliakov, Mythe Aryen, 241.

⁶² See for instance Shahidi, Hossein, “The BBC Persian Service, 1940–1953, and the Nationalization of Iranian Oil,” Journal of Iranian Research and Analysis, 17, no. 1 (2001)Google Scholar.

⁶³ Rezun, Miron, The Soviet Union and Iran: Soviet policy in Iran from the Beginnings of the Pahlavi Dynasty until the Soviet Invasion in 1941 (Alphen aan den Rijn and Genève, 1981), 319Google Scholar.

⁶⁴ See Rezun, The Soviet Union and Iran, 319, esp. note 24.

⁶⁵ “Mà Cherà Bartarim?” [Why are We Superior?], Nàmeh-ye Iràn Bàstàn, 14 October 1933.

⁶⁶ “Cheguneh dar Àlmàn Jashnhà va Àdàb-e Àriyàyi va Iràni az Now Zendeh Mishavad” [How Aryan and Iranian Celebrations and Customs are Revived in Germany], Nàmeh-ye Iràn Bàstàn, 3 November 1933.

⁶⁷ “Tahqiqàt-e 'Elmi va Tàrikhi beh Khàmeh-ye yeki az Siyàsiyun-e Bozorg-e Doniyà, Ràje' beh Iràn-e Kohan” [Scientific and Historical Research into Ancient Iran, Authored by one of the Most Important Politicians of the World], Nàmeh-ye Iràn Bàstàn, 14 April 1934.

⁶⁸ Lenczowski, Russia and the West in Iran, 159.

⁶⁹ See for instance Milani, Abbas, The Persian Sphinx: Amir Abbas Hoveyda and the Riddle of the Iranian Revolution: a Biography (London, 2000), 76–77Google Scholar.

⁷⁰ Lenczowski, Russia and the West in Iran, 160.

⁷¹ Lenczowski, Russia and the West in Iran, 161.

⁷² Kazemzadeh, Massoud, “The Day Democracy Died,” Khaneh, 3, no. 34 (2003)Google Scholar.

⁷³ For the sake of simplicity, this article will use one single transliteration ariya, although in reality the Sanskrit, Avestic and Old Persian versions of the term differ slightly.

⁷⁴ See for instance Bailey, H. W., “Iranian Arya- and Daha-,” Transactions of the Philological Society 58, no. 1 (1959): 94CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Benveniste, Emile, “L'Eran-vez et l'Origine Légendaire des Iraniens,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London, 7, no. 2 (1934)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷⁵ Jean Kellens believes that the Sanskrit ariya cannot be unequivocally taken for an ethnonym, whereas Avestic ariya can. See Kellens, Jean, “Les Airiia-ne Sont Plus des Aryas: Ce Sont Déjà des Iraniens,” in Aryas, Aryens et Iraniens en Asie Centrale, ed. Fussman, Gérard et al. (Paris, 2005), 240–42Google Scholar.

⁷⁶ Schmitt, Rüdiger, “Aryans,” in Encyclopædia Iranica, ed. Yarshater, Ehsan (New York, 1987)Google Scholar.

⁷⁷ Excellent publications address this aspect of the topic. See for instance Fussman, Gérard et al., Aryas, Aryens et Iraniens en Asie centrale, Publications de l'Institut de civilisation indienne (Paris, 2005)Google Scholar. See in particular the article from Jean Kellens included in this volume.

⁷⁸ For more details refer to Bailey, H. W., “Arya,” in Encyclopædia Iranica, ed. Yarshater, Ehsan (New York, 1987)Google Scholar.

⁷⁹ Bailey, “Arya.”

⁸⁰ Siegert, “Zur Geschichte der Begriffe ‘Arier’ und ‘arisch,’” 99.

⁸¹ Kellens, “Les Airiia- ne Sont Plus des Aryas: Ce Sont Déjà des Iraniens,” 242.

⁸² Müller, Friedrich Max, Lectures on the Science of Language: Delivered at the Royal Institution of Great Britain in April, May and June 1861, 5th rev. ed. (London, 1866), 268Google Scholar. Before him, no direct hint was made to such definition of Iran: Anquetil-Duperron for instance, believed that airyanem vaejah meant “l'Iran pur.” Quoted in Siegert, “Zur Geschichte der Begriffe ‘Arier’ und ‘arisch,’” 86.

⁸³ Examples abound, even in highly influential and serious scholarly works for instance: Browne, Edward Granville, A Literary History of Persia: From the Earliest Times until Firdawsí (London and Leipsic, 1909), 4Google Scholar; and Frye, Richard N., Persia, rev. ed. (London, 1968), 13Google Scholar.

⁸⁴ For a similar take on this topic, but from a slightly different and more polemical perspective, see Vaziri, Mostafa, Iran as Imagined Nation: the Construction of National Identity (New York, 1993), 75–81Google Scholar.

⁸⁵ Gnoli, Gherardo, The Idea of Iran: An Essay on its Origin, Serie orientale Roma (Roma, 1989), 14–15Google Scholar.

⁸⁶ See McKenzie, D. N., “Eran, Eranšahr,” in Encyclopædia Iranica, ed. Yarshater, Ehsan (New York, 1998)Google Scholar.

⁸⁷ Reported by French archaeologist Roman Ghirshman in 1976, quoted in Vaziri, Iran as Imagined Nation, 79.

⁸⁸ Vaziri, Iran as Imagined Nation, 78.

⁸⁹ See the wise warnings of Fussman, “Entre Fantasmes, Science et Politique,” part. 785–88 and 813.

⁹⁰ For more on this process refer to Ringer, Monica M., Education, Religion, and the Discourse of Cultural Reform in Qajar Iran, Bibliotheca Iranica. Intellectual traditions series no. 5 (Costa Mesa, CA, 2001)Google Scholar, esp. chap. 1 and 2.

⁹¹ Traditional Arabic, Turkish or Persian texts show an equal disdain for anything Christian. For two contrasting views on these issues, see Said, Edward W., Orientalism (Harmondsworth, 1995)Google Scholar: esp. chap. 1 heading 2; and Lewis, Bernard, The Muslim Discovery of Europe, 1st ed. (New York, 1982)Google Scholar. For a perhaps more balanced view see Hourani, Albert, Islam in European thought (Cambridge, 1991)Google Scholar.

⁹² For a criticism of local historiography, see Vaziri, Iran as Imagined Nation, 151–67; Adamiyat, Fereydoun and Ricks, Thomas M., “Problems in Iranian Historiography.” Iranian Studies, 4, no. 4 (1971)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Enayat, Hamid, “The Politics of Iranology,” Iranian Studies, 6, no. 1 (1973)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹³ Akhundzadeh, Fath'ali, Maktubàt: Nàmehà-ye Kamàl od-Dowleh beh Shàhzàdeh Jalàl od-Dowleh [Maktubat: Letters from Kamal od-Dowleh to Prince Jalal od-Dowleh], ed. Bahram Choubine (Frankfurt, 2006), 291–92Google Scholar.

⁹⁴ For instance, he claimed that the Sasanian revolutionary figure Mazdak laid the foundations of republicanism and égalité “two thousand years ago”. See Kermani, Seh Maktub, 267.

⁹⁵ See for instance Sagheb-Far, Morteza, “Iràn Bàstàn va Hoveyyat-e Iràni” [Ancient Iran and Iranian Identity], in Iràn: Hoveyyat, Meliyyat, Qowmeyyat [Iran: Identity, Nationhood, Ethnicity], ed. Ahmadi, Hamid (Tehran, 1383/2004), 255Google Scholar.

⁹⁶ Kermani, Seh Maktub, 128.

⁹⁷ Kermani, Seh Maktub, 139.

⁹⁸ “Whenever I touch a branch of the ugly dispositions of Iranians I find its seed to be planted by Arabs.” See Kermani, Seh Maktub, 265.

⁹⁹ See Akhundzadeh to Jalal ed-Din Mirza, 15 June 1870, in Mohammadzadeh, Hamid and Arasli, Hamid, eds., Mirzà Fath'ali Àkhundof: Alefbà-ye Jadid va Maktubàt [Mirza Fathali Akhundov: the New Alphabet and the Maktubàt] (Baku, 1963), 172Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁰ Kermani, Seh Maktub, 180–81.

¹⁰¹ René Verneau and Emile Burnouf, cited in Poliakov, Mythe Aryen, 311 and 308.

¹⁰² It is noteworthy that in the case of those other countries, in particular India, the tool used to emancipate the local population from Western rule—nationalism—was itself prisoner to the same West's intellectual legacy. See Partha Chatterjee, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World: a Derivative Discourse? (Minneapolis, 1993).

¹⁰³ See in particular Akhundzadeh, Maktubàt; and Kermani, Seh Maktub.

¹⁰⁴ “European philosophers write that [we excel] in all negative qualities.” In Kermani, Seh Maktub, 263–64.

¹⁰⁵ As previously mentioned, although Iranians were considered Aryans, many Orientalists still considered them some debased and racially mixed variety, and usually did not exalt Iranians as they would Europeans.

¹⁰⁶ Quoted in Cole, Juan R. I., “Marking Boundaries, Marking Time: The Iranian Past and the Construction of the Self by Qajar Thinkers,” Iranian Studies, 29, no. 1–2 (1996): 44CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁰⁷ From Mokhber ol-Saltaneh's memoirs, quoted in Katouzian, Homa, State and Society in Iran: the Eclipse of the Qajars and the Emergence of the Pahlavis (London, 2006), 336Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁸ File 102012/3201, no. 41749, 03.10.1313/May 1934. Prime Ministry Files. Quoted in Kashani-Sabet, Firoozeh, Frontier Fictions: Shaping the Iranian Nation, 1804–1946 (Princeton, NJ, 1999)Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁹ Katouzian, Homa, The Persians: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern Iran (New Haven, CT, 2009): 217–18Google Scholar.

¹¹⁰ See footnote 4.

¹¹¹ “30 Iranian soccer fans appear in court for disturbing public order,” Associated Press Newswires, 16 October 2001.

¹¹² “Football—Given's blast ordeal—Interview—The Republic's World Cup hero talks of grenades and glory …”, The Observer, 25 November 2001.

¹¹³ “Football—Accueil Triomphal pour les Allemands en Iran,” Reuters—Les actualités en français, 7 October 2004.

¹¹⁴ “Kolossale Weihnachten in Teheran,” Süddeutsche Zeitung, 11 October 2004.

¹¹⁵ “Kolossale Weihnachten in Teheran.”

¹¹⁶ “Länderspiel Iran - Deutschland live im ZDF, 09.10.2004,” in Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen (ZDF). A video of the scene is available on YouTube under “Iran v Germany, 2004, National anthems”. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iH0gl6OXXt4&feature=PlayList&p=5D4016A8C8B4B254&playnext=1&playnext_from=PL&index=2.

¹¹⁷ Some friendly exuberance was also demonstrated at the Iran–USA game during the 1998 World Cup, but for wholly different reasons. It also has to be said that the games against Iraq and Ireland were crucial World Cup preliminary games, whereas the game against Germany was a friendly match. Yet the fact that Iraqis lost and were mistreated, while Germans won and were celebrated confirms the prevalence of sentiments among the fans that do not only relate to football.