Hostname: page-component-5cf477f64f-tgq86 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-04-07T12:14:26.546Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The Bābī-Bahā’ī Revolution in Iran

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 March 2025

Moojan Momen*
Affiliation:
Independent scholar, UK

Abstract

The Bābīs and Bahā’īs have worked towards a gradual revolutionary conceptual and social transformation within their community which is based on a change in values and ethics. This paper looks first at the underlying transformation in worldview that has resulted in a move away from hierarchy and patriarchy, by creating social structures and pathways of action that are not led by powerful individuals, but rather are consultative and collaborative. Then, more specific examples are given of how this change in worldview played out with regard to social and religious leadership, education, and the role of women. What may be called a Bahā’ī counter-culture has thus been created. Evidence is provided of how these changes may have impacted the wider Iranian society and contributed to misunderstandings and persecutions of the Bahā’ī community.

Type
Article
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2025. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Association for Iranian Studies.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

ʿAbdu’l-Bahā, , “Let there be Peace,” Star of the West 7, no. 11 (1916): .Google Scholar
ʿAbdu’l-Bahā, , Makātīb-i Ḥaḍrat-i ʿAbdu’l-Bahā. 8 vols. Tehran: Muʾassisih-yi Millī-yi Maṭbūʿāt-i Amrī, 121–135 B.E. [1965-1978].Google Scholar
ʿAbdu’l-Bahā, , Muntakhabātī az Makātīb-i Ḥaḍrat-i ʿAbdu’l-Bahā, vol. 1, Wilmette, IL: Bahā’ī Publishing Trust, 1979. Translated as Selections from the Writings of ʿAbdu’l-Bahā. Haifa: Bahā’ī World Centre, 1978.Google Scholar
ʿAbdu’l-Bahā, , The Promulgation of Universal Peace. Wilmette, IL: Bahā’ī Publishing Trust, 1982.Google Scholar
ʿAbdu’l-Bahā, . Risālih-yi madaniyyih va risālih-yi siyāsiyyih. Darmstadt, Germany: Bahā’ī-Verlag, 2006. Partly translated as The Secret of Divine Civilization. Translated by Marzieh Gail. Wilmette, IL: Bahā’ī Publishing Trust, 1990.Google Scholar
[ʿAbdu’l-Bahā], . A Traveller’s Narrative, written to illustrate the Episode of the Bāb, edited and translated by Browne, Edward G.. 2 vols., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1891.Google Scholar
Adamiyyat, Firaydūn, and Nāṭiq, Homa. Afkār-i Ijtimāʿī va siyāsī va iqtiṣādī dar āthār-i muntashir nashudih-yi dawrih-yi Qājār. Tehran: Āgāh, 1356/1977.Google Scholar
Adʿiyyih-yi Ḥaḍrat-i Maḥbūb. Cairo, 76 B.E./1920, reprint Hofheim-Lagenhain: Bahā’ī-Verlag, Germany, 1980Google Scholar
Afary, Janet. The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906-1911: Grassroots Democracy, Social Democracy and the Origins of Feminism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1996.Google Scholar
Afshari, Reza. “The Discourse and Practice of Human Rights Violations of Iranian Baha’is in the Islamic Republic of Iran.” In The Baha’is of Iran: Socio-historical studies, edited by Brookshaw, Dominic Parviz and Fazel, Seena B., . London: Routledge, 2008.Google Scholar
Algar, Hamid. Mirzā Malkam Khān. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amanat, Abbas. Iran: A Modern History. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amin, Camron Michael. The Making of the Modern Iranian Woman. Gainesville FA: University Press of Florida, 2002.Google Scholar
Arjomand, Said Amir. Messianism and Sociopolitical Revolution in Medieval Islam. Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2022.Google Scholar
Armstrong-Ingram, Jackson. “American Bahā’ī Women and the Education of Girls in Tehran, 1909–1934.” In In Iran, edited by Smith, Peter, 181210. Los Angeles: Kalimāt Press, 1986.Google Scholar
ʿAyn al-Salṭanih (Qahramān Mīrzā), , Rūznāmih-yi Khāṭirāt-i ‘Ayn al-Salṭanih, edited by Mas‘ūd Sālūr and Īraj Afshār. Vol. 5. Tehran: Asāṭīr, 1998.Google Scholar
Bāb, The. Bayān (Persian). Citations given as vāḥid:chapter. https://afnanlibrary.org/inba-volume-62/ (accessed Feb. 17 , 2025).Google Scholar
Bāb, The. Qayyūm al-Asmā’. https://afnanlibrary.org/qayyum-al-asma/ (accessed Feb. 17 , 2025).Google Scholar
Bahā’ī International Community, “#OurStoryIsOne.” https://www.ourstoryisone.bic.org (accessed Feb. 17 , 2025).Google Scholar
Bahā’ī World, The. vol. 15: . Haifa: Bahā’ī World Centre, 1976.Google Scholar
Bahā’u’llāh, . Iranian National Bahā’ī Archives, volumes 22 and 27. https://afnanlibrary.org/inba/ (accessed Feb. 17 , 2025).Google Scholar
Bahā’u’llāh, . Kitāb-i Aqdas. Haifa: Bahā’ī World Centre, 1995. Translated as The Kitāb-i-Aqdas. Haifa: Bahā’ī World Centre, 1992.Google Scholar
Bahā’u’llāh, . Kitāb-i Mustaṭāb-i Īqān. Cairo, 1352/1934, repr. Hofheim-Langenhain: Bahā’ī -Verlag, Germany, 1980. Translated as Kitāb-i-Īqān: The Book of Certitude. Translated by Effendi, Shoghi. Wilmette, IL: Bahā’ī Publishing Trust, 1989.Google Scholar
Bahā’u’llāh, . Majmūʿih-iy az Alwāḥ-i Jamāl-i Aqdas-i Abhā. Hofheim-Langenhain: Bahā’ī-Verlag, 1980. Translated as Tablets of Bahā’u’llāh revealed after the Kitāb-i-Aqdas. Haifa: Bahā’ī World Centre, 1978.Google Scholar
Bahā’u’llāh, . Muntakhabātī az Āthār-i Ḥaḍrat-i Bahā’u’llāh. Hofheim-Langenhain: Bahā’ī-Verlag, 1984. Translated as Gleanings from the Writings of Bahā’u’llāh. Translated by Shoghi Effendi. Wilmette, IL: Bahā’ī Publishing Trust, 1983.Google Scholar
Bahā’u’llāh, . Nidā-yi Rabb al-Junūd, https://www.bahai.org/fa/library/authoritative-texts/bahaullah/summons-lord-hosts (accessed Feb. 17 , 2025). Translated as Summons of the Lord of Hosts. Haifa: Bahā’ī World Center, 2002.Google Scholar
Balyuzi, Hasan M. Bahā’u’llāh: King of Glory. Oxford: George Ronald, 1980.Google Scholar
Bayat, Mangol. Iran’s First Revolution: Shiʿism and the Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1909. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bostock, Frances, and Jones, Geoffrey. Planning and Power in Iran: Ebtehaj and Economic Development under the Shah, London: Frank Cass, 1989.Google Scholar
Brookshaw, Dominic Parviz. “Women Poets.” In Literature of the Early Twentieth Century: From the Constitutional Period to Reza Shah, edited by Seyed-Gohrab, Asghar, 240310. London: I.B. Tauris, 2015.Google Scholar
Browne, Edward Granville. Materials for the Study of the Bābī Religion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1918.Google Scholar
Browne, Edward Granville. The Persian Revolution, 1905-1911. Cambridge: University Press, 1910.Google Scholar
Browne, Edward Granville. A Year among the Persians. London: Adam and Charles Black, 1893.Google Scholar
Chamankhah, Leila. “Political Philosophy of Shaykhīsm: Conservative Nationalism in the Time of Crisis.” Muslim World 114 (2024): 3648.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chehabi, Houchang E.Anatomy of Prejudice: Reflections on Secular Anti-Baha’ism in Iran.” In The Baha’is of Iran: Socio-historical studies, edited by Brookshaw, Dominic Parviz and Fazel, Seena B., . London: Routledge, 2008.Google Scholar
Cole, Juan R.I.Autobiography and Silence: The Early Career of Shaykh al-Ra’īs Qājār.” In Iran im 19. Jahrhundert und die Enstehung der Bahā’ī Religion, edited by Bürgel, Christoph and Schayani, Isabel, 91126. Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1998.Google Scholar
Cole, Juan R.I. Modernity and the Millennium: The Genesis of the Baha’i Faith in the Nineteenth-century Middle East. New York: Columbia University Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Cole, Juan R.I.The Provincial Politics of Heresy and Reform in Qajar Iran: Shaykh al-Rais in Shiraz, 1895-1902.” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 22, nos.1-2 (2002): 119126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Compilation of Compilations. 2 vols. [Mona Vale, NSW]: Bahā’ī Publications Australia, 1991.Google Scholar
Eschraghi, Armin. “Undermining the Foundations of Orthodoxy: Some Notes on the Bāb’s Sharia (Sacred Law).” In Most Noble Pattern, edited by Lawson, B. Todd, . Oxford: George Ronald, 2012.Google Scholar
Faridzadeh, Ghazaleh, and Faridzadeh, Raed. “Negotiating Freedom: Mostašār od-Doule’s Yek kalame and the Iranian Constitutional Experience.” Die Welt des Islams 61 (2021): 385410.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghaemmaghami, Omid. “‘The hand of God is not chained up’: Notes on two salient themes in the prose writings of Ṭāhirih Qurratu’l-‘Ayn.” In The Bab and the Babi Community of Iran, edited by Vahman, Fereydun, . Oxford: Oneworld Academic, 2020.Google Scholar
Ghaemmaghami, Omid, and Dehghani, Sasha (eds.). “‘From the Seed of Love We Sow’: Further Research on Tahirih Qurrat al-ʿAynHawwa, special issue, vol. 21, no. 4 (2023)Google Scholar
Hannen, Joseph. “Persian American Education Society.” Star of the West 2, no. 1 (1911): 47.Google Scholar
Hornby, Helen (compiler). Lights of Guidance: A Bahā’ī Reference File. 3rd ed., Delhi: Bahā’ī Publishing Trust, 1994.Google Scholar
Rights Watch, Human. “Iran: Scores Arrested in Anti-Baha’i Campaign.” https://www.hrw.org/news/2006/06/04/iran-scores-arrested-anti-bahai-campaign (accessed Feb, 15 , 2025)Google Scholar
Īqānī, Shaqāyiq. “Tarīkhchih-yi madāris-i Bahā’ī dar Māzandarān.” Graduation thesis, Institute for Advanced Bahā’ī Studies, Iran, 2001.Google Scholar
Iran Press Watch. “14 Female Prisoners Express Sympathy for the Family of the Deceased Baha’i and Praising ‘Her Fight Against Injustice.’Dec. 6 , 2023. https://iranpresswatch.org/post/24308/14-female-prisoners-express-sympathy-for-the-family-of-the-deceased-bahai-and-praising-her-fight-against-injustice/ (accessed Feb. 16 , 2025).Google Scholar
Ishrāq-Khāvarī, ʿAbdul-Ḥamīd (ed.). Mā’idih-yi Āsmānī. 8 vols., Tehran: Muʾassisih-yi Millī-yi Maṭbūʿāt-i Amrī, 128-129 BE/1971-2.Google Scholar
Jasion, Jan. “‘A.J.’ and the Introduction of the Bahā’ī Faith into Poland.” Bahā’ī Studies, 4 (1978), .Google Scholar
Karlberg, Michael. Beyond the Culture of Contest. Oxford: George Ronald, 2004.Google Scholar
Kazemi, Farshid. “The repressed event of (Shi’i) Islam: psychoanalysis, the trauma of Iranian Shi’ism, and feminine revolt.” In Islamic Psychoanalysis and Psychoanalytic Islam, edited by Parker, Ian and Siddiqui, Sabah, 7087. London: Routledge, 2019.Google Scholar
Keddie, Nikki. “The Origins of the Religious-Radical Alliance in Iran.” Past & Present 34, no. 1 (Jul. 1966): 7080.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keddie, Nikki. Sayyid Jamāl ad-Dīn “al-Afghānī.” Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972.Google Scholar
Lambden, Stephen. “QA XLVI [46] Sūrat al-Huwa.” https://hurqalya.ucmerced.edu/node/438/ (accessed Feb. 17 , 2025).Google Scholar
Lawson, B. Todd. “The Dangers of Reading: Inlibration, Communion and Transference in Qur’an Commentary,” in Scripture and Revelation, edited by Momen, Moojan, 171215. Oxford: George Ronald, 1997.Google Scholar
Lawson, B. Todd. Gnostic Apocalypse and Islam: Qur’an, exegesis, messianism, and the literary origins of the Babi Religion. London: Routledge, 2011.Google Scholar
Lawson, B. Todd. “Interpretation as Revelation: The Qur’ān Commentary of Sayyid ʿAlī Muḥammad Shīrāzī, the Bāb.” In Approaches to the History of the Interpretation of the Qur’ān, edited by Rippin, A., . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.Google Scholar
Lawson, B. Todd. Tafsir as Mystical Experience: Intimacy and Ecstasy in Quran Commentary. Leiden: Brill, 2018.Google Scholar
MacEoin, Denis. “From Babism to Baha’ism: Problems of Militancy, Quietism, and Conflation in the Construction of a Religion.” Religion 13 (1983): 219255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Majlisī, Muḥammad Bāqir. Biḥār al-Anwār, vol. 52. Beirut: Muʾassisah al-Wafā, 1403 AH/1982.Google Scholar
Malikzādih, Mahdī. Tārīkh-i Inqilāb-i Mashrūtih, vol. 1. Tehran: Sukhan, 1383AH/1963.Google Scholar
Mashhūrī, Dilārām (Fazel Ghaybi). Rag-i Tāk. 2 vols., 2nd ed., Vincennes, France: Khāvarān, 1999.Google Scholar
Matthee, Rudi. “Facing a Rude and Barbarous Neighbor: Iranian Perceptions of Russia and the Russians from the Safavids to the Qajars.” In Iran Facing Others: Identity Boundaries in a Historical Perspective, edited by Amanat, Abbas and Vejdani, Farzin, . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.Google Scholar
Māzandarānī, Fāḍil. Aṣrār al-Āthār. Vol. 2. Tehran: Muʾassisih-yi Millī-yi Maṭbūʿāt-i Amrī, .Google Scholar
Moghissi, Haideh. Populism and Feminism in Iran: Women’s Struggle in a Male-Defined Revolutionary Movement. Basingstoke: MacMillan, 1996.Google Scholar
Mogra, Ibrahim. “One ayatollah’s stand for the Baha’i gives me great hope for Iran.” The Guardian, Apr. 21, 2014. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/apr/21/ayatollahs-stand-bahai-gives-hope-iran (accessed Feb. 16 , 2025).Google Scholar
Momen, Moojan. The Bābī and Bahā’ī Religions, 1844-1944: Some contemporary Western accounts. Oxford: George Ronald, 1981.Google Scholar
Momen, Moojan. The Bahā’ī Communities of Iran. 2 vols., Oxford: George Ronald, 2015, 2021.Google Scholar
Momen, Moojan. “The Baha’i Influence on the Reform Movements of the Islamic World in the 1860s and 1870s.” Bahā’ī Studies Bulletin 2, no. 2 (September 1983): 4765. https://bahai-library.com/momen_influence_reform_movements/ (accessed Feb. 17 , 2025)Google Scholar
Momen, Moojan. “Baha’i Schools in Iran.” In The Baha’is of Iran: Socio-historical Studies, edited by Brookshaw, Dominic Parviz and Fazel, Seena B., 94121. London: Routledge, 2008.Google Scholar
Momen, Moojan. “The Baha’is and the Constitutional Revolution: The Case of Sari, Mazandaran, 1906-1913,” Iranian Studies 41, no. 3 (2008): 343363CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Momen, Moojan, “The Constitutional Movement and the Baha’is of Iran: The Creation of an ‘Enemy Within’.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 39, no. 3 (2012) 328346.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Momen, Moojan. “Millennialist Narrative and Apocalyptic Violence.” Journal of the British Association for the Study of Religion, 20 (2018): 118. https://www.jbasr.com/ojs/index.php/jbasr/article/view/24 (accessed Feb. 17 , 2025)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Momen, Moojan. ‘The Reform Movement in Isfahan, Iran: the role of Bābīs and Bahā’īs.’ Religions, forthcomingGoogle Scholar
Momen, Moojan. “The Role of Women in the Iranian Bahā’ī Community during the Qajar Period.” In Religion and Society in Qajar Iran, edited by Robert, M. Gleave, . London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2005.Google Scholar
Momen, Moojan. “The Trial of Mullā ʿAlī Basṭāmī: a combined Sunnī-Shīʿī fatwā against the Bāb.” Iran 20 (1982) .CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Momen, Moojan. “Who Was a Bahā’ī in the Upper Echelons of Qājār Iran?Religions, 14, no. 4 (2023): ; https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/14/4/469 (accessed Feb. 17 , 2025). Published in The Bahā’ī Faith: Doctrinal and Historical Explorations, edited by Moojan Momen and Zachery Heern, 119-31. Basel: MDPI, 2024.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mottahedeh, Negar. Representing the Unpresentable: Historical Images of National Reform from the Qajars to the Islamic Republic of Iran. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Muḥammadī, Nargis. “Naẓarāt-i Khānum-i Nargis Muḥammadī dar Mawrid Vaḍʿiyat-i Bahāʾiyyān.” http://aeenebahai.org/fa/node/4534 (accessed Feb. 16 , 2025).Google Scholar
Naji, Kasra. “Political storm in Iran as Rafsanjani’s daughter meets Bahai leader.” BBC, May 18 , 2016. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36320816 (accessed Feb. 16 , 2025).Google Scholar
Najmabadi, Afsaneh. “Ṭāyirih.” Nīmeh-ye Dīgar, 2, no. 3 (Winter 1997): .Google Scholar
Nash, Geoffrey. “What Is Bahai Orientalism?Humanities 10 (2021): .Google Scholar
Nashat, Guity. The Origins of Modern Reform in Iran. Urbana: University of Chicago Press, 1982.Google Scholar
Paidar, Parvin. Women and the Political Process in Twentieth-century Iran. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.Google Scholar
Parsā-Bināb, Yūnis. Tārīkh-i Ṣad-sālih-yi Aḥzāb va Sāzmān-hā-yi Siyāsī-yi Īrān. 2nd ed., Washington, DC: Rāvandī, 1383/2004.Google Scholar
Quinn, Sholeh A.Muhammad Shah Qājār in Four Early Writings of the Bāb.” In A Most Noble Pattern, edited by Lawson, Todd, . Oxford: George Ronald, 2012.Google Scholar
Rastigārī, Umīd. “Mulāḥiẓātī dar bārih-yi vaḍʿ-i falsafih dar Īrān.” Nāmih-yi Farhang 51 (Spring 1383/2004): .Google Scholar
Renan, Ernest. Oeuvres Completes (ed. Henriette Psichari), . 10 vols., Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1947–61.Google Scholar
Sabeti, Kian. “Baha’i Jailed After Educational and Humanitarian Service Projects.” Iranwire, , September 27 , 2023. https://iranwire.com/en/bahais-of-iran/120949-bahai-jailed-after-educational-and-humanitarian-service-projects/ (accessed Feb 16 , 2025).Google Scholar
Sabeti, Kian. “Saman’s School: Iranian Authorities Jail Education Pioneer for Being a Baha’i.” Iranwire, September 5 , 2023. https://iranwire.com/en/bahais-of-iran/120153-samans-school-iranian-authorities-jail-education-pioneer-for-being-a-bahai/ (accessed Feb 16 , 2025).Google Scholar
Samandar, Shaykh Kāẓim. Āthār-i Qalamī-yi Shaykh Kāẓim Samandar va baʿḍī āthār-i mutafarriqih, edited by Samandarī, Rūḥullāh. Hofheim, Germany: Bahā’ī-Verlag, 2011.Google Scholar
Schuster, W. Morgan. The Strangling of Persia. New York: The Century, 1912.Google Scholar
Sedghi, Hamideh. Women and Politics in Iran: Veiling, Unveiling, and Reveiling. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Shahvar, Soli. The Forgotten Schools: The Baha’is and Modern Education in Iran, 1899–1934. London: I.B. Tauris Academic, 2009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Effendi, Shoghi. Bahā’ī Administration. Wilmette, IL: Bahā’ī Publishing Trust, 1995.Google Scholar
Effendi, Shoghi. Citadel of Faith: Messages to America 1947–1957. Wilmette, IL: Bahā’ī Publishing Trust, 1995.Google Scholar
Effendi, Shoghi. Messages to the Bahā’ī World 1950–1957. Wilmette, IL: Bahā’ī Publishing Trust, 1971.Google Scholar
Effendi, Shoghi. The Promised Day is Come. Rev. ed., Wilmette, IL: Bahā’ī Publishing Trust, 1980.Google Scholar
Effendi, Shoghi. The Unfolding Destiny of the British Bahā’ī Community: The Messages of the Guardian of the Bahā’ī Faith to the Bahā’īs of the British Isles. London: Bahā’ī Publishing Trust, 1981.Google Scholar
Effendi, Shoghi. The World Order of Bahā’u’llāh. Wilmette, IL: Bahā’ī Publishing Trust, 1991.Google Scholar
Smith, Peter. An Introduction to the Baha’i Faith. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Smith, Peter. “A Note on Babi and Baha’i Numbers in Iran.” Iranian Studies, vol. 17, no. 2/3 (Spring-Summer, 1984): 295301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Styles (Maneck), Susan. “The Conversion of Religious Minorities to the Bahā’ī Faith in Iran: Some Preliminary Observations.” Journal of Bahā’ī Studies, 3, no. 3 (1991): 3548Google Scholar
Tavakoli-Targhi, Mohammad. “Anti-Baha’ism and Islamism in Iran.” In The Baha’is of Iran: Socio-historical studies, edited by Brookshaw, Dominic Parviz and Fazel, Seena B., 200231. London: Routledge, 2008.Google Scholar
United Press International, “54 Baha’is arrested in Iran.” https://www.upi.com/Top_News/2006/05/24/Report-54-Bahais-arrested-in-Iran/54361148504612 (accessed Feb. 15 , 2025).Google Scholar
Universal House of Justice. Messages from the Universal House of Justice, 1963-1986, compiled by Geoffry W. Marks. Wilmette IL: Bahā’ī Publishing Trust, 1986.Google Scholar
Vahdat, Farzin. God and Juggernaut: Iran’s intellectual encounter with modernity. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Vahman, Fereydun, 175 Years of Persecution: A History of the Babis and Baha’is of Iran. Oxford: Oneworld, 2019.Google Scholar
Velasco, Ismael. “Academic Irrelevance or Disciplinary Blind-Spot? Middle Eastern Studies and the Bahā’ī Faith Today.” MESA Bulletin 35, no. 2 (Winter 2001): 188200. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23063465 (accessed Feb. 15 , 2025).Google Scholar
Yazdani, Mina. “ʿAbdu’l-Bahā and the Iranian Constitutional Revolution: Embracing Principles while Disapproving Methodologies.” The Journal of Bahā’ī Studies. 24, nos 1-2 (2014):4782. https://journal.bahaistudies.ca/online/article/view/160 (accessed Feb. 17 , 2025).Google Scholar
Yazdani, Mina. Awḍāʿ-yi Ijtimāʿī-yi Īrān dar ʿAhd-i Qājār az khilāl-i Āthār-i Bahāʾī. Hamilton, ON: Association for Bahā’ī Studies, 2003.Google Scholar
Zabihi-Moghaddam, Siyamak. “The Bāb on the Rights of Women,” Religion, 14 (2023) . https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/14/6/705 (accessed Feb. 17 , 2025); printed in The Bahā’ī Faith: Doctrinal and Historical Explorations, edited by Moojan Momen and Zachery Heern, 18-30. Basel: MDPI, 2024.Google Scholar
Zarqānī, Maḥmūd. Maḥmūd’s Diary. Translated by Sobhani, Mohi. Oxford: George Ronald, 1998.Google Scholar