Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-fbnjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T19:40:17.645Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The ecological effects of Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense) invasion: a synthesis

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 February 2020

James S. Cash Open the ORCID record for James S. Cash [Opens in a new window] ,
Christopher J. Anderson  and
William D. Gulsby
James S. Cash*
Affiliation:
Graduate Research Assistant, Auburn University, School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn, AL, USA
Christopher J. Anderson
Affiliation:
Associate Professor, Auburn University, School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn, AL, USA
William D. Gulsby
Affiliation:
Assistant Professor, Auburn University, School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn, AL, USA
*
Author for correspondence: James S. Cash, Auburn University, School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, 602 Duncan Drive, Auburn, AL36849. (Email: [email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense Lour.) is a deciduous to evergreen shrub with an expansive nonnative global range. Control costs are often high, so land managers must carefully consider whether the plant’s potential negative effects warrant active management. To help facilitate this decision-making process, we reviewed and synthesized the literature on the potential ecological effects of L. sinense invasion. We also identified research gaps in need of further study. We found ample evidence of negative relationships between L. sinense invasion and native plant communities. While observational studies are not able to confirm whether L. sinense is driving these relationships, experimental evidence suggests that there is a cause–effect relationship. Of particular concern is the possibility that L. sinense could suppress forest regeneration and cause areas to transition from forest to L. sinense–dominated shrublands. Although this outcome would obviously impact a wide variety of wildlife species, empirical evidence of negative effects of L. sinense on wildlife are limited, and some species may actually benefit from the additional cover and foraging opportunities that L. sinense can provide. Further research on the potential effects of L. sinense invasion on large-scale forest structure and wildlife populations is needed. In areas where L. sinense invasion is a concern, evidence suggests early detection and management can mitigate control costs.

Keywords

Negative correlationsresearch gapsreviewsmall-leaf privet
Type
Review
Information
Invasive Plant Science and Management , Volume 13 , Issue 1 , March 2020 , pp. 3 - 13
Copyright
© Weed Science Society of America, 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

Associate Editor: Stephen F. Enloe, University of Florida

References

Aerts, R, Berendse, F (1988) The effect of increased nutrient availability on vegetation dynamics in wet heathlands. Vegetatio 76:63–69Google Scholar
Allison, JR (1996) Technical/Agency Draft Recovery Plan for Fringed Campion, Silene polypetala (Walt.) Fern. & Schub. Atlanta, GA: Southeast Region, US Fish and Wildlife Service. P 8Google Scholar
Barksdale, WF, Anderson, CJ (2015) The influence of land use on forest structure, species composition, and soil conditions in headwater-slope wetlands of coastal Alabama, USA. International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management 11:61–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnett, JM, Hudack, PF, Dick, GO (2016) Removing Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense Lour.) and establishing native plants in a flooded riparian corridor in north-central Texas, USA. Environ Qual Manage 26:121–129CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Batcher, MS (2000) Element Stewardship Abstract for Ligustrum spp. Privet. Arlington, VA: Nature Conservancy. 10 pGoogle Scholar
Bauer, J (2012) Invasive species: “back-seat drivers” of ecosystem change? Biol Invasions 14:1295–1304CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benez-Secanho, FJ, Grebner, DL, Ezell, AW, Grala, RK (2018) Financial trade-offs associated with controlling Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense Lour.) in forestlands in the southern USA. J Forest 116:236–244CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bodie, JR, Smith, KR, Burke, VJ (1996) A comparison of diel nest temperature and nest site selection for two sympatric species of freshwater turtles. Am Midl Nat 136:181–186CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bogert, CM (1959) How reptiles regulate their body temperature. Sci Am 200:105–120CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brantley, EF (2008) Influence of Chinese Privet (Ligustrum sinense Lour.) on Riparian Forests of the Southern Piedmont: Net Primary Productivity, Carbon Sequestration, and Native Plant Regeneration. PhD dissertation. Auburn, AL: Auburn University. 239 pGoogle Scholar
Brown, CE, Pezeshki, SR (2000) A study on waterlogging as a potential tool to control Ligustrum sinense populations in western Tennessee. Wetlands 20:429–4372.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burton, ML, Samuelson, LJ, Pan, S (2005) Riparian woody plant diversity and forest structure along an urban-rural gradient. Urban Ecosyst 8:93–106CrossRefGoogle Scholar
CABI (2018) Ligustrum sinense [original text by D Shaw]. In Invasive Species Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/30763. Accessed: March 1, 2019Google Scholar
Callaway, RM, Ridenour, WM (2004) Novel weapons: invasive success and the evolution of increased competitive ability. Front Ecol Environ 2:436–443CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chittka, L, Schürkens, S (2001) Successful invasion of a floral market. Nature 411:653CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Christopher, CC, Barrett, GW (2006) Coexistence of white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) and golden mice (Ochrotomys nutalli) in a southeastern forest. J Mammal 87:102–107CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cofer, MS, Walck, JL, Hidayati, SN (2008) Species richness and exotic species invasion in middle Tennessee cedar glades in relation to abiotic and biotic factors. J Torrey Bot Soc 135:540–553CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deyn, GBD, Raaijmakers, CE, Van der Putten, WH (2004) Plant community development is affected by nutrients and soil biota. J Ecol 92:824–834CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dirr, MA (1998) Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, ornamental characteristics, culture, propagation and uses. 5th ed. Champaign, IL: Stipes Publishing. P 563Google Scholar
EDDMapS (2019) Early Detection and Distribution Mapping System. University of Georgia–Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. https://www.eddmaps.org/distribution/usstate.cfm?sub=3035. Accessed: June 24, 2019Google Scholar
Ehrenfeld, JG (2003) Effects of exotic plant invasions on soil nutrient cycling processes. Ecosystems 6:503–523CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Enloe, S, Loewenstein, N (2018) Control Options for Chinese Privet. Alabama Cooperative Extension System. 4 p. https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/control-invasive-plants/control-options-for-chinese-privet. Accessed: March 1, 2019Google Scholar
Faulkner, JL, Clebsch, EEC, Sanders, WL (1989) Use of prescribed burning for managing natural and historic resources in the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park, USA. Environ Manage 13:603–612CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foard, M (2014) Causes and Consequences of Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense Lour.) Invasion in Hydrologically Altered Forested Wetlands. Master’s thesis. Jonesboro, AR: Arkansas State University. 172 pGoogle Scholar
Foard, M, Burnette, DJ, Burge, DRL, Marsico, TD (2016) Influence of river channelization and the invasive shrub, Ligustrum sinense, on oak (Quercus spp.) growth rates in bottomland hardwood forests. Appl Veg Sci 19:401–412CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gioria, M, Osborne, BA (2014) Resource competition in plant invasions: emerging patterns and research needs. Front Plant Sci 5:article 501, 10.3389/fpls.2014.00501CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goddard, J (1992) Ecological studies of adult Ixodes scapularis in central Mississippi: questing activity in relation to time of year, vegetation type, and meteorological conditions. J Med Entomol 29:501–506CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenberg, CH, Walter, ST (2010) Fleshy fruit removal and nutritional composition of winter-fruiting plants: a comparison of non-native invasive and native species. Nat Area J 30:312–321CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greene, BT, Blossey, B (2012) Lost in the weeds: Ligustrum sinense reduces native plant growth and survival. Biol Invasions 14:139–150CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greene, BT, Blossey, B (2014) Patterns of privet: urbanizing watersheds, invasive Ligustrum sinense, and performance of native plant species in Piedmont floodplain forests. Ecosystems 17:990–1001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greipsson, S, DiTommaso, A (2006) Invasive non-native plants alter the occurrence of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and benefit from this association. Ecol Restor 24:236–241CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grove, E, Clarkson, BD (2005) An Ecological Study of Chinese Privet (Ligustrum sinense Lour.) in the Waikato Region. Hamilton, New Zealand: Centre for Biodiversity and Ecology Research Contract Report No. 41. 17 pGoogle Scholar
Hagan, DL, Mikhailova, EA, Shearman, TM, Ma, PT, Nankaya, JS, Hart, SK, Valdetero, HE, Bridges, WC, Yun, H (2014) The role of soil and landscape factors in Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense) invasion in the Appalachian Piedmont. Invasive Plant Sci Manag 7:483–490CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanula, JL, Horn, S (2011a) Removing an exotic shrub from riparian forests increases butterfly abundance and diversity. Forest Ecol Manag 262: 674–680CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanula, JL, Horn, S (2011b) Removing an invasive shrub (Chinese privet) increases bee diversity and abundance in riparian forests of the southeastern United States. Insect Conserv Diver 4:275–283CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanula, JL, Horn, S, Taylor, JW (2009) Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense) removal and its effect on native plant communities of riparian forests. Invasive Plant Sci Manag 2:292–300CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hart, JL, Holmes, BN (2013) Relationships between Ligustrum sinense invasion, biodiversity, and development in a mixed bottomland forest. Invasive Plant Sci Manag 6:175–186CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howle, MB, Straka, TJ, Nespeca, MC (2010) Family forest owners’ perceptions on chemical methods for invasive species control. Invasive Plant Sci Manag 3:253–261CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hudson, JR, Hanula, JL, Horn, S (2013) Removing Chinese privet from riparian forests still benefits pollinators five years later. Biol Conserv 167:355–362CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hudson, JR, Hanula, JL, Horn, S (2014) Impacts of removing Chinese privet from riparian forests on plant communities and tree growth five years later. For Ecol Manag 324:101–108CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenni, L, Kéry, M (2003) Timing of autumn bird migration under climate change: advances in long-distance migrants, delays in short-distance migrants. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 270:1467–1471CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kalina, J, Braman, SK, Hanula, JL (2017) Host utlilization of Chinese privet (Lamiales: Oleaceae) and host choice by Leptoypha mutica (Hemiptera: Tingidae). J Entomol Sci 52:141–153CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennedy, TA, Naeem, S, Howe, KM, Knops, JMH, Tilman, D, Reich, P (2002) Biodiversity as a barrier to ecological invasion. Nature 417:636–638CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kittel, MM (2001) Relationship among Invasive Chinese Privet, Plant Diversity, and Small Mammal Captures in Southeastern Deciduous Forests. Master’s thesis. Clemson, SC: Clemson University. 35 pGoogle Scholar
Klepac, J, Rummer, RB, Hanula, JL, Horn, S (2007) Mechanical Removal of Chinese Privet. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station SRS-43. 5 pGoogle Scholar
Konno, K, Hirayama, C, Shinbo, H, Nakamura, M (2009) Glycine addition improves feeding performance of non-specialist herbivores on the privet, Ligustrum obtusifolium: in vivo evidence for the physiological impacts of anti-nutritive plant defense with iridoid and insect adaptation with glycine. Appl Entomol Zool 44:595–601CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuebbing, SE, Classen, AT, Call, JJ, Henning, JA, Simberloff, D (2015) Plant-soil interactions promote co-occurrence of three nonnative woody shrubs. Ecology 96:2289–2299CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuebbing, SE, Classen, AT, Simberloff, D (2014) Two co-occurring invasive woody shrubs alter soil properties and promote subdominant invasive species. J Appl Ecol 51:124–133CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuebbing, SE, Patterson, CM, Classen, AT, Simberloff, D (2016) Co-occurring nonnative woody shrubs have additive and non-additive soil legacies. Ecol Appl 26:1896–1906CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuhman, TR, Pearson, SM, Turner, MG (2010) Effects of land-use history and contemporary landscape on non-native plant invasion at local and regional scales in the forest-dominated southern Appalachians. Landscape Ecol 25:1433–1445CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lin, J, Harcombe, PA, Fulton, MR, Hall, RW (2002) Sapling growth and survivorship as a function of light in a mesic forest of southeast Texas, USA. Oecologia 132:428–435CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Llewellyn, DC (2005) Effect of toxic riparian weeds on the survival of aquatic invertebrates. Aust Zool 33:194–209CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lobe, JW, Callaham, MA Jr., Hendrix, PF, Hanula, JL (2014) Removal of an invasive shrub (Chinese privet: Ligustrum sinense Lour) reduces exotic earthworm abundance and promotes recovery of native North American earthworms. Appl Soil Ecol 83:133–139CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lochmiller, RL (1978) Privet as a potential winter food supplement for songbirds. Bird-Banding 49:279–280CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loewenstein, NJ, Loewenstein, EF (2005) Non-native plants in the understory of riparian forests across a land use gradient in the Southeast. Urban Ecosyst 8:79–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacDougall, AS, Turkington, R (2005) Are invasive species the drivers or passengers of change in degraded ecosystems? Ecology 86:42–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maddox, V, Byrd, J Jr., Serviss, B (2010) Identification and control of invasive privets (Ligustrum spp.) in the middle southern United States. Invasive Plant Sci Manag 3:482–488CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, LJ, Murray, BR (2011) A predictive framework and review of the ecological impacts of exotic plant invasions on reptiles and amphibians. Biol Rev 86:407–419CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McAlpine, KG, Timmins, SM, Jackman, SD, Lamoureaux, SL (2018) Composition of the understory in 132 woody weed populations and implications for succession. New Zeal J Ecol 42:277–283Google Scholar
McCall, LJ, Walck, JL (2014) Dispersal characteristics of two native and two nonnative fleshy-fruited sympatric shrubs. Castanea 79:88–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McEwan, RW, Rieske, LK, Arthur, MA (2009) Potential interactions between invasive woody shrubs and the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar), an invasive insect herbivore. Biol Invasions 11:1053–1058CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McRae, WA (1980) Unusual bobwhite foods on abandoned Piedmont farmlands. Georgia Journal of Science 38:49–54Google Scholar
Merler, JA, Diuk-Wasser, MA, Quintana, RD (2001) Winter diet of dusky-legged guan (Penelope obscura) at the Paraná River Delta region. Stud Neotrop Fauna E 36:33–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Merriam, RW (2003) The abundance, distribution and edge associations of six non-indigenous, harmful plants across North Carolina. J Torrey Bot Soc 130:283–291CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Merriam, RW, Feil, E (2002) The potential impact of an introduced shrub on native plant diversity and forest regeneration. Biol Invasions 4:369–373CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, JH, Chambliss, EB (2008) Estimates of Acres Covered of Nonnative Invasive Plants in Southern Forests. Auburn, AL: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 1 p. https://www.invasive.org/fiamaps/summary.pdf. Accessed: March 1, 2019Google Scholar
Miller, JH, Chambliss, EB, Bargeron, CT (2004) Invasive Plants of the Thirteen Southern States. https://www.invasive.org/south/seweeds.cfm?sort=3. Accessed: March 1, 2019Google Scholar
Miller, JH, Miller, KA (2005) Forest Plants of the Southeast and Their Wildlife Uses. Rev. ed. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press. P 360Google Scholar
Mitchell, JD, Lockaby, BG, Brantley, EF (2011) Influence of Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense) on decomposition and nutrient availability in riparian forests. Invasive Plant Sci Manag 4:437–447CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Montaldo, NH (1993) Dispersión por aves y éxito reproductive de dos especies de Ligustrum (Oleaceae) en un relicto de selva subtropical en la Argentina. Rev Chil Hist Nat 66:75–85Google Scholar
Morris, LL, Walck, JL, Hidayati, SN (2002) Growth and reproduction of the invasive Ligustrum sinense and native Forestiera ligustrina (Oleaceae): implications for the invasion and persistence of a nonnative shrub. Int J Plant Sci 163:1001–1010CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Myatt, NA, Krementz, DG (2007) Fall migration and habitat use of American woodcock in the central United States. J Wildl Manag 71:1197–1205CrossRefGoogle Scholar
[NRC] National Research Council (2007) Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants: Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. 384 pGoogle Scholar
New, TR, Yen, AL (1995) Ecological important and invertebrate conservation. Oryx 29:187–191CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nowacki, GJ, Abrams, MD (2008) The demise of fire and “mesophication” of forests in the eastern United States. BioScience 58:123–138CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Malley, M, Blesh, J, Williams, M, Barrett, GW (2003) Food preferences and bioenergetics of the white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) and the golden mouse (Ochrotomys nuttalli). Georgia Journal of Science 61:233–237Google Scholar
Osland, MJ, Pahl, JW, Richardson, CJ (2009) Native bamboo [Arundinaria gigantea (Walter) Muhl., Poaceae] establishment and growth after the removal of an invasive non-native shrub (Ligustrum sinense Lour., Oleaceae): implications for restoration. Castanea 74:247–258CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pallin, N (2000) Ku-ring-gai flying-fox reserve. Ecol Manag Restor 1:10–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pokswinski, SM (2009) Invasive Characteristics of Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense Lour.) in a Bay Swamp in the Fall Line Hills of East-Central Alabama. Master’s thesis. Auburn, AL: Auburn University. 69 pGoogle Scholar
Robb, GN, McDonald, RA, Chamberlain, DE, Bearhop, S (2008) Food for thought: supplementary feeding as a driver of ecological change in avian populations. Front Ecol Environ 6:476–484CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rossell, CR Jr., Arico, S, Clarke, HD, Horton, JL, Ward, JR, Patch, SC (2014) Forage selection of native and nonnative woody plants by beaver in a rare-shrub community in the Appalachian Mountains of North Carolina. Southeast Nat 13:649–662CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, KA, Whelan, CJ (1999) Effects of exotic Lonicera and Rhamnus on songbird nest predation. Conserv Biol 13:1502–1506CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schnell, D, Catling, P, Folkerts, G, Frost, C, Gardner, R, et al. (2000) Sarracenia oreophila. In The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2000.RLTS.T39718A10260069.en. Accessed: March 1, 2019CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simberloff, D, Von Holle, B (1999) Positive interactions of nonindigenous species: invasional meltdown? Biol Invasions 1:21–32CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stocker, R, Hupp, KVS (2008) Fire and nonnative invasive plants in the Southeastern Bioregion. Pages 91–112in Zouhar, K, Smith, JK, Sutherland, S, Brooks, M, eds. Wildland Fire in Ecosystems: Fire and Nonnative Invasive Plants. Vol. 6. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42. 355 pGoogle Scholar
Stromayer, KAK, Warren, RJ, Johnson, AS, Hale, PE, Rogers, CL, Tucker, CL (1998) Chinese privet and the feeding ecology of white-tailed deer: the role of an exotic plant. J Wildlife Manage 62:1321–1329CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strong, CM, Brown, DR, Stouffer, PC (2005) Frugivory by wintering hermit thrush in Louisiana. Southeast Nat 4:627–638CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tews, J, Brose, U, Grimm, V, Tielbörger, K, Wichmann, MC, Schwager, M, Jeltsch, F (2004) Animal species diversity driven by habitat heterogeneity/diversity: the importance of keystone structures. J Biogeogr 31:79–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tiller, MB (2015) Effects of Yaupon, Chinese Privet, and Chinese Tallow on Understory Fuel Flammability in East Texas Hardwood and Pine Ecosystems. Master’s thesis. Nacogdoches, TX: Stephen F. Austin State University. 171 pGoogle Scholar
Traveset, A, Richardson, DM (2006) Biological invasions as disruptors of plant reproductive mutualisms. Trends Ecol Evol 21:208–216CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ulyshen, MD, Horn, S, Hanula, JL (2010) Response of beetles (Coleoptera) at three heights to the experimental removal of an invasive shrub, Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense), from floodplain forests. Biol Invasions 12:1573–1579CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Urbatsch, L (2000) Chinese Privet Ligustrum sinense Lour. Baton Rouge, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service Plant Guide. 5 pGoogle Scholar
Wang, H-H, Wonkka, CL, Grant, WE, Rogers, WE (2016) Range expansion of invasive shrubs: implication for crown fire risk in forestlands of the southern USA. AoB Plants 8:plw012, 10.1093/aobpla/plw012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warren, RC, Hurst, GA (1981) Rating of Plants in Pine Plantations as White-Tailed Deer Food. Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station, Information Bulletin 18. Mississippi State, MS: Mississippi State University. 18 pGoogle Scholar
Weakley, AS, Houk, RD (1994) Recovery Plan for Scweinitz’s Sunflower (Helianthus schweinitzii). Atlanta, GA: Southeast Region, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. P 11Google Scholar
Westoby, M, Dalby, J, Adams-Acton, L (1983) Fruit production by two species of privet, Ligustrum sinense Lour. and L. lucidum W.T. Ait. in Sydney. Aust Weeds 2:127–129Google Scholar
Wilcox, J, Beck, CW (2007) Effects of Ligustrum sinense Lour. (Chinese privet) on abundance and diversity of songbirds and native plants in a southeastern nature preserve. Southeast Nat 6:535–550CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, PA, Karl, BJ, Bannister, P, Lee, WG (2000) Small mammals as potential seed dispersers in New Zealand. Austral Ecol 25:523–532CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zaifman, J, Shan, D, Ay, A, Jimenez, AG (2017) Shifts in bird migration timing in North American long-distance and short-distance migrants are associated with climate change. Int J Zool 2017, 10.1155/2017/602564CrossRefGoogle Scholar