Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dsjbd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T05:11:11.178Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Affective neuroscience, emotional regulation, and international relations

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 January 2020

Earl Gammon Open the ORCID record for Earl Gammon [Opens in a new window]
Earl Gammon*
Affiliation:
Department of International Relations, University of Sussex, Arts B376, BrightonBN1 9QN, UK
*
Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

International relations (IR) has witnessed an emerging interest in neuroscience, particularly for its relevance to a now widespread scholarship on emotions. Contributing to this scholarship, this paper draws on the subfields of affective neuroscience and neuropsychology, which remain largely unexplored in IR. Firstly, the paper draws on affective neuroscience in illuminating affect's defining role in consciousness and omnipresence in social behavior, challenging the continuing elision of emotions in mainstream approaches. Secondly, it applies theories of depth neuropsychology, which suggest a neural predisposition originating in the brain's higher cortical regions to attenuate emotional arousal and limit affective consciousness. This predisposition works to preserve individuals’ self-coherence, countering implicit assumptions about rationality and motivation within IR theory. Thirdly, it outlines three key implications for IR theory. It argues that affective neuroscience and neuropsychology offer a route toward deep theorizing of ontologies and motivations. It also leads to a reassessment of the social regulation of emotions, particularly as observed in institutions, including the state. It also suggests a productive engagement with constructivist and poststructuralist approaches by addressing the agency of the body in social relations. The paper concludes by sketching the potential for a therapeutically-attuned approach to IR.

Keywords

affective neuroscienceemotioninternational relations theoryaffectpsychology
Type
Original Papers
Information
International Theory , Volume 12 , Issue 2 , July 2020 , pp. 189 - 219
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ashby, F. Gregory, Turner, Benjamin O., and Horvitz, Jon C.. 2010. “Cortical and Basal Ganglia Contributions to Habit Learning and Automaticity.” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 14 (5): 208–15.10.1016/j.tics.2010.02.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baltes, John. 2013. “Locke's Inverted Quarantine: Discipline, Panopticism, and the Making of the Liberal Subject.” The Review of Politics 75 (2): 173–92.10.1017/S0034670513000028CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barrett, Lisa Feldman. 2006. “Are Emotions Natural Kinds?” Perspectives on Psychological Science 1 (1): 28–58.10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00003.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beattie, Amanda R., and Schick, Kate, eds. 2013. The Vulnerable Subject: Beyond Rationalism in International Relations. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.10.1057/9781137292148CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Behbehani, Michael M. 1995. “Functional Characteristics of the Midbrain Periaqueductal Gray.” Progress in Neurobiology 46 (6): 575–605.10.1016/0301-0082(95)00009-KCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bell, Duncan. 2015. “In Biology We Trust: Biopolitical Science and the Elusive Self.” In Human Beings in International Relations, edited by Jacobi, Daniel and Freyberg-Inan, Annette, 113–31. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9781316337042.006CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berenskötter, Felix. 2017. “Deep Theorizing in International Relations.” European Journal of International Relations 24 (4): 814–40.10.1177/1354066117739096CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bially Mattern, Janice. 2014. “On Being Convinced: An Emotional Epistemology of International Relations.” International Theory 6 (3): 589–94.10.1017/S1752971914000323CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blackman, Lisa. 2008. The Body: The Key Concepts. Oxford: Berg.Google Scholar
Bleiker, Roland, and Hutchison, Emma. 2014. “Introduction: Emotions and World Politics.” International Theory 6 (3): 490–91.10.1017/S1752971914000220CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blits, Jan H. 1989. “Hobbesian Fear.” Political Theory 17 (3): 417–31.10.1177/0090591789017003003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Botvinick, Matthew, and Cohen, Jonathan. 1998. “Rubber Hands ‘Feel’ Touch That Eyes See.” Nature 391 (6669): 756.10.1038/35784CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Briesemeister, Benny, Kuchinke, Lars, Jacobs, Arthur M., and Braun, Mario. 2014. “Emotions in Reading: Dissociation of Happiness and Positivity.” Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience 15 (2): 1–12.Google Scholar
Buckner, Randy, Andrews-Hanna, Jessica, and Schacter, Daniel. 2008. “The Brain's Default Network.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1124 (1): 1–38.10.1196/annals.1440.011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buhle, Jason, Kober, Hedy, Ochsner, Kevin, Mende-Siedlecki, Peter, Weber, Jochen, Hughes, Brent, Kross, Ethan, Atlas, Lauren, McRae, Kateri, and Wager, Tor. 2013. “Common Representation of Pain and Negative Emotion in the Midbrain Periaqueductal Gray.” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 8 (6): 609–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Butler, Judith. 2003. “Violence, Mourning, Politics.” Studies in Gender and Sexuality 4 (1): 9–37.10.1080/15240650409349213CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Callon, Michel. 1998. “Introduction: The Embeddedness of Economic Markets in Economics.” In The Laws of the Markets, edited by Callon, Michel, 1–57. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Clark, Candace. 2004. “Emotional Gifts and ‘You First’ Micropolitics.” In Feelings and Emotions: The Amsterdam Symposium, edited by Manstead, Antony, Frijda, Nico and Fischer, Agneta, 402–21. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clough, Patricia, and Halley, Jean, eds. 2007. The Affective Turn: Theorizing the Social. Durham: Duke University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, Randall. 2004. Interaction Ritual Chains. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coole, Diana, and Frost, Samantha. 2010. “Introducing the New Materialisms.” In New Materialisms: Ontology, Agency, and Politics, edited by Coole, Diana and Frost, Samantha, 1–43. Durham: Duke University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crawford, Neta C. 2000. “The Passion of World Politics: Propositions on Emotion and Emotional Relationships.” International Security 24 (4): 116–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crawford, Neta C. 2014. “Institutionalizing Passion in World Politics: Fear and Empathy.” International Theory 6 (3): 535–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Damasio, Antonio. 2010. Self Comes to Mind: Constructing the Conscious Brain. New York: Pantheon Books.Google Scholar
Damasio, Antonio, and Carvalho, Gil. 2013. “The Nature of Feelings: Evolutionary and Neurobiological Origins.” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 14 (2): 143–52.10.1038/nrn3403CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Damasio, Hanna, Grabowski, Thomas, Frank, Randall, Galaburda, Albert, and Damasio, Antonio. 1994. “The Return of Phineas Gage: Clues About the Brain from the Skull of a Famous Patient.” Science 264: 1102–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
D'Aoust, Anne-Marie. 2014. “Ties That Bind? Engaging Emotions, Governmentality and Neoliberalism: Introduction to the Special Issue.” Global Society 28 (3): 267–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, Mark H. 1983. “Measuring Individual Differences in Empathy: Evidence for a Multidimensional Approach.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 44 (1): 113–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Haan, Michelle. 2011. “The Neurodevelopment of Face Perception.” In The Oxford Handbook of Face Perception, edited by Calder, Andrew, Rhodes, Gillian, Johnson, Mark and Haxby, James, 731–52. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Deleuze, Gilles, and Guattari, Félix. 1984. Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, Translated by Robert Hurley, Mark Seem and Helen Lane. London: Athlone.Google Scholar
Elias, Norbert. 1978. The Civilizing Process: The History of Manners, Translated by Edmund Jephcott. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Elster, Jon. 1999. Alchemies of the Mind: Rationality and the Emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Eznack, Lucile. 2011. “Crises as Signals of Strength: The Significance of Affect in Close Allies’ Relationships.” Security Studies 20 (2): 238–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foucault, Michel. 1988. “Technologies of the Self.” In Technologies of the Self: A Seminar with Michel Foucault, edited by Martin, Luther, Gutman, Huck and Hutton, Patrick, 16–49. London: Tavistock.Google Scholar
Foucault, Michel. 2007. Security, Territory, Population: Lectures at the Collège De France, 1977–78, Translated by Graham Burchill. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Fox, Glenn R., Sobhani, Mona, and Aziz-Zadeh, Lisa. 2013. “Witnessing Hateful People in Pain Modulates Brain Activity in Regions Associated with Physical Pain and Reward.” Frontiers in Psychology 4 (772): 1–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freyberg-Inan, Annette. 2004. What Moves Man: The Realist Theory of International Relations and Its Judgment of Human Nature. Albany: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
Friston, Karl. 2005. “A Theory of Cortical Responses.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 360 (1456): 815–36.10.1098/rstb.2005.1622CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fuster, Joaquín. 2008. The Prefrontal Cortex, 4th edition. London: Elsevier.10.1016/B978-0-12-373644-4.00002-5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gazzaniga, Michael S. 1995. “Principles of Human Brain Organization Derived from Split-Brain Studies.” Neuron 14 (2): 217–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glimcher, Paul W. 2011. Foundations of Neuroeconomic Analysis. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gray, Henry. 1918. Anatomy of the Human Body, 20th edition. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gross Stein, Janice. 2013. “Psychological Explanations of International Decision Making and Collective Behavior.” In Handbook of International Relations, 2nd edition, edited by Carlsnaes, Walter, Risse, Thomas and Simmons, Beth, 195–219. London: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hacking, Ian. 1999. The Social Construction of What? Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Hall, Todd, and Yarhi-Milo, Keren. 2012. “The Personal Touch: Leaders’ Impressions, Costly Signaling, and Assessments of Sincerity in International Affairs.” International Studies Quarterly 56 (3): 560–73.10.1111/j.1468-2478.2012.00731.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hart, Heledd, and Rubia, Katya. 2012. “Neuroimaging of Child Abuse: A Critical Review.” Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 6 (52): 1–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Head, Naomi. 2016. “Costly Encounters of the Empathic Kind: A Typology.” International Theory 8 (1): 171–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hindess, Barry. 1996. Discourses of Power: From Hobbes to Foucault. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Hirschman, Albert O. 1977. The Passions and the Interests: Political Arguments for Capitalism before Its Triumph. Princeton: Princeton University Press.10.1515/9781400848515CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hirstein, William. 2005. Brain Fiction: Self-Deception and the Riddle of Confabulation. Cambridge: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Hobbes, Thomas. 1679. Thomas Hobbesii Malmesburiensis Vita, Authore Seipso. London.Google Scholar
Holmes, Marcus. 2013. “The Force of Face-to-Face Diplomacy: Mirror Neurons and the Problem of Intentions.” International Organization 67 (4): 829–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holmes, Marcus. 2014. “International Politics at the Brain's Edge: Social Neuroscience and a New ‘Via Media’.” International Studies Perspectives 15 (2): 209–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holmes, Marcus. 2015. “Believing This and Alieving That: Theorizing Affect and Intuitions in International Politics.” International Studies Quarterly 59 (4): 706–20.Google Scholar
Hopf, Ted. 2010. “The Logic of Habit in International Relations.” European Journal of International Relations 16 (4): 539–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hutchison, Emma. 2016. Affective Communities in World Politics: Collective Emotions after Trauma. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iacoboni, Marco. 2009. “The Problem of Other Minds Is Not a Problem: Mirror Neurons and Intersubjectivity.” In Mirror Neuron Systems: The Role of Mirroring Processes in Social Cognition, edited by Pineda, Jaime A., 121–34. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Jeffery, Renée. 2014a. “The Promise and Problems of the Neuroscientific Approach to Emotions.” International Theory 6 (3): 584–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jeffery, Renée. 2014b. Reason and Emotion in International Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jervis, Robert. 1970. The Logic of Images in International Relations. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Klimecki, Olga M. 2015. “The Plasticity of Social Emotions.” Social Neuroscience 10 (5): 466–73.10.1080/17470919.2015.1087427CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kurki, Milja. 2008. Causation in International Relations: Reclaiming Causal Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lamm, Claus, and Singer, Tania. 2010. “The Role of Anterior Insular Cortex in Social Emotions.” Brain Structure and Function 214 (5–6): 579–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lash, Scott. 1984. “Genealogy and the Body: Foucault/Deleuze/Nietzsche.” Theory, Culture & Society 2 (2): 1–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lebow, Richard Ned. 2008. A Cultural Theory of International Relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lebow, Richard Ned. 2015. “Greeks, Neuroscience and International Relations.” In Human Beings in International Relations, edited by Jacobi, Daniel and Freyberg-Inan, Annette, 132–55. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LeDoux, Joseph. 1998. The Emotional Brain: The Mysterious Underpinnings of Emotional Life. New York: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
LeDoux, Joseph. 2003. Synaptic Self: How Our Brains Become Who We Are. New York: Penguin.Google Scholar
LeDoux, Joseph. 2007. “The Amygdala.” Current Biology 17 (20): R868–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LeDoux, Joseph. 2012. “Rethinking the Emotional Brain.” Neuron 73 (4): 653–76.10.1016/j.neuron.2012.02.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leisman, Gerry, Braun-Benjamin, Orit, and Melillo, Robert. 2014. “Cognitive-Motor Interactions of the Basal Ganglia in Development.” Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience 8 (16): 1–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Linklater, Andrew. 2011. The Problem of Harm in World Politics: Theoretical Investigations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Linklater, Andrew. 2019. “Symbols and World Politics: Towards a Long-Term Perspective on Historical Trends and Contemporary Challenges.” European Journal of International Relations 25 (3): 931–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loewenstein, George. 2000. “Emotions in Economic Theory and Economic Behavior.” American Economic Review 90 (2): 426–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyotard, Jean-François. 1993. Libidinal Economy, Translated by Iain Hamilton Grant. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
MacLean, Paul D. 1990. The Triune Brain in Evolution: Role in Paleocerebral Functions. New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Macpherson, C.B. 1962. The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Maleuvre, Didier. 2016. The Art of Civilization: A Bourgeois History. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maor, Moshe, and Gross, James. 2015. “Emotion Regulation: Implications for Political Science and International Relations.” Paper presented at ECPR Joint Sessions of Workshops, Warsaw.Google Scholar
March, James G., and Olsen, Johan P.. 1998. “The Institutional Dynamics of International Political Orders.” International Organization 52 (4): 943–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, Emily. 2004. “Talking Back to Neuro-Reductionism.” In Cultural Bodies: Ethnography and Theory, edited by Thomas, Helen and Ahmed, Jamilah, 190–212. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Massumi, Brian. 2002. Parables for the Virtual: Movement, Affect, Sensation. Durham: Duke University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDermott, Rose, and Lopez, Anthony. 2012. “Psychology and Constructivism: Uneasy Bedfellows?” In Psychology and Constructivism in International Relations: An Ideational Alliance, edited by Shannon, Vaughn and Kowert, Paul, 197–214. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
McGaugh, James. 2004. “The Amygdala Modulates the Consolidation of Memories of Emotionally Arousing Experiences.” Annual Review of Neuroscience 27: 1–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mehta, Uday Singh. 1992. The Anxiety of Freedom: Imagination and Individuality in Locke's Political Thought. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mercer, Jonathan. 1996. “Approaching Emotion in International Politics.” Paper presented at International Studies Association Annual Meeting, San Diego, 25 April.Google Scholar
Mercer, Jonathan. 2005. “Rationality and Psychology in International Politics.” International Organization 59 (1): 77–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mercer, Jonathan. 2014a. “Feeling Like a State: Social Emotion and Identity.” International Theory 6 (3): 515–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mercer, Jonathan. 2014b. “‘Psychological Constructivism’: Comment on Iver Neumann's ‘International Relations as a Social Science’.” Millennium 43 (1): 355–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Merker, Bjorn. 2007. “Consciousness without a Cerebral Cortex: A Challenge for Neuroscience and Medicine.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 30 (1): 63–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, Bruce. 2007. “The Human Frontal Lobes: An Introduction.” In The Human Frontal Lobes: Functions and Disorders, 2nd edition, edited by Miller, Bruce and Cummings, Jeffrey, 3–11. New York: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Morgenthau, Hans J. 1947. Scientific Man vs. Power Politics. London: Latimer House.Google Scholar
Motta, Simone, Carobrez, Antonio, and Canteras, Newton. 2017. “The Periaqueductal Gray and Primal Emotional Processing Critical to Influence Complex Defensive Responses, Fear Learning and Reward Seeking.” Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 76 (A): 39–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Northoff, Georg. 2011. Neuropsychoanalysis in Practice: Brain, Self, and Objects. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Northoff, Georg. 2012. “Psychoanalysis and the Brain – Why Did Freud Abandon Neuroscience.” Frontiers in Psychology 3 (71): 1–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Connor, Cliodhna, Rees, Geraint, and Joffe, Helene. 2012. “Neuroscience in the Public Sphere.” Neuron 74 (2): 220–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ortony, Andrew, and Turner, Terence. 1990. “What's Basic About Basic Emotions?” Psychological Review 97 (3): 315–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Panksepp, Jaak. 1982. “Toward a General Psychobiological Theory of Emotions.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 5 (3): 407–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Panksepp, Jaak. 1990. “A Role for Affective Neuroscience in Understanding Stress: The Case of Separation Distress Circuitry.” In Psychobiology of Stress, edited by Puglisi-Allegra, Stefano and Oliverio, Alberto, 41–57. Dordrecht: Kluwer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Panksepp, Jaak. 1992. “A Critical Role for ‘Affective Neuroscience’ in Resolving What Is Basic About Basic Emotions.” Psychological Review 99 (3): 554–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Panksepp, Jaak. 1998a. Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Panksepp, Jaak. 1998b. “The Periconscious Substrates of Consciousness: Affective States and the Evolutionary Origins of the Self.” Journal of Consciousness Studies 5 (5–6): 566–82.Google Scholar
Panksepp, Jaak. 2000. “The Neuro-Evolutionary Cusp Between Emotions and Cognitions: Implications for Understanding Consciousness and the Emergence of a Unified Mind Science.” Consciousness & Emotion 1 (1): 15–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Panksepp, Jaak. 2008. “The Affective Brain and Core Consciousness: How Does Neural Activity Generate Emotional Feelings?” In Handbook of Emotions, 3rd edition, edited by Lewis, Michael, Haviland-Jones, Jeanette and Barrett, Lisa Feldman, 47–67. New York: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Panksepp, Jaak. 2010. “Affective Neuroscience of the Emotional BrainMind: Evolutionary Perspectives and Implications for Understanding Depression.” Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience 12 (4): 533–45.Google ScholarPubMed
Panksepp, Jaak, and Biven, Lucy. 2012. The Archaelogy of Mind: Neuroevolutionary Origins of Human Emotions. London: Norton.Google Scholar
Panksepp, Jaak, and Solms, Mark. 2012. “What is Neuropsychoanalysis? Clinically Relevant Studies of the Minded Brain.” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 16 (1): 6–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paul, Natalie A., Stanton, Steven J., Greeson, Jeffrey M., Smoski, Moria J., and Wang, Lihong. 2013. “Psychological and Neural Mechanisms of Trait Mindfulness in Reducing Depression Vulnerability.” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 8 (1): 56–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pedwell, Caroline. 2014. Affective Relations: The Transnational Politics of Empathy. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peirce, Charles S. 1877. “The Fixation of Belief.” The Popular Science Monthly 12: 1–15.Google Scholar
Penttinen, Elina. 2013. Joy and International Relations: A New Methodology. Abingdon: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phan, K. Luan, Wager, Tor, Taylor, Stephan, and Liberzon, Israel. 2002. “Functional Neuroanatomy of Emotion: A Meta-Analysis of Emotion Activation Studies in PET and fMRI.” NeuroImage 16 (2): 331–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raichle, Marcus E., MacLeod, Ann Mary, Snyder, Abraham, Powers, William, Gusnard, Debra, and Shulman, Gordon. 2001. “A Default Mode of Brain Function.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98 (2): 676–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rameson, Lian T., Morelli, Sylvia A., and Lieberman, Matthew D.. 2011. “The Neural Correlates of Empathy: Experience, Automaticity, and Prosocial Behavior.” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 24 (1): 235–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Richter-Levin, Gal, and Akirav, Irit. 2003. “Emotional Tagging of Memory Formation – in the Search for Neural Mechanisms.” Brain Research Reviews 43 (3): 247–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rolls, Edmund T. 2005. Emotion Explained. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ross, Andrew A.G. 2006. “Coming in From the Cold: Constructivism and Emotions.” European Journal of International Relations 12 (2): 197–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ross, Andrew A.G. 2013a. Mixed Emotions: Beyond Fear and Hatred in International Conflict. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ross, Andrew A.G. 2013b. “Realism, Emotion, and Dynamic Allegiances in Global Politics.” International Theory 5 (2): 273–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sasley, Brent E. 2010. “Affective Attachments and Foreign Policy: Israel and the 1993 Oslo Accords.” European Journal of International Relations 16 (4): 687–709.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sasley, Brent E. 2011. “Theorizing States’ Emotions.” International Studies Review 13 (3): 452–76.10.1111/j.1468-2486.2011.01049.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schuett, Robert. 2010. Political Realism, Freud, and Human Nature in International Relations. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scopus. 2019. Analyze Author Output. Accessed February 6, 2019. http://www.scopus.com.Google Scholar
Shamay-Tsoory, Simone G. 2009. “Empathic Processing: Its Cognitive and Affective Dimensions and Neuroanatomical Basis.” In The Social Neuroscience of Empathy, edited by Decety, Jean and Ickes, William, 215–32. Cambridge: MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shewmon, D. Alan, Holmes, Gregory, and Byrne, Paul. 1999. “Consciousness in Congenitally Decorticate Children: Developmental Vegetative State as Self-Fulfilling Prophecy.” Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 41 (6): 364–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singer, Tania, Seymour, Ben, O'Doherty, John, Kaube, Holger, Dolan, Raymond, and Frith, Christopher. 2004. “Empathy for Pain Involves the Affective but Not Sensory Components of Pain.” Science 303 (5661): 1157–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Solms, Mark. 2013. “The Conscious Id.” Neuropsychoanalysis 15 (1): 5–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Solms, Mark, and Panksepp, Jaak. 2012. “The ‘Id’ Knows More Than the ‘Ego’ Admits: Neuropsychoanalytic and Primal Consciousness Perspectives on the Interface Between Affective and Cognitive Neuroscience.” Brain Sciences 2 (2): 147–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Solms, Mark, and Turnbull, Oliver. 2002. The Brain and the Inner World: An Introduction to the Neuroscience of Subjective Experience. London: Karnac.Google Scholar
Solomon, Ty. 2012. “Human Nature and the Limits of the Self: Hans Morgenthau on Love and Power.” International Studies Review 14 (2): 201–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spunt, Robert, and Lieberman, Matthew. 2013. “The Busy Social Brain: Evidence for Automaticity and Control in the Neural Systems Supporting Social Cognition and Action Understanding.” Psychological Science 24 (1): 80–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sweet, Lawrence. 2011. “Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging.” In Brain Imaging in Behavioral Medicine and Clinical Neuroscience, edited by Cohen, Ronald and Sweet, Lawrence, 37–47. New York: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vandekerckhove, Marie, Bulnes, Luis Carlo, and Panksepp, Jaak. 2014. “The Emergence of Primary Anoetic Consciousness in Episodic Memory.” Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience 7 (210): 1–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vytal, Katherine, and Hamann, Stephan. 2010. “Neuroimaging Support for Discrete Neural Correlates of Basic Emotions: A Voxel-Based Meta-Analysis.” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 22 (12): 2864–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Widmaier, Wesley. 2010. “Emotions Before Paradigms: Elite Anxiety and Populist Resentment From the Asian to Subprime Crises.” Millennium 39 (1): 127–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilcox, Lauren B. 2015. Bodies of Violence: Theorizing Embodied Subjects in International Relations. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, Jason, and Panksepp, Jaak. 2011. “Toward Affective Circuit-Based Preclinical Models of Depression: Sensitizing Dorsal PAG Arousal Leads to Sustained Suppression of Positive Affect in Rats.” Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 35 (9): 1902–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed