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A galaxy of norms: UN peace operations and protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 August 2023

Mara Tignino  and
Tadesse Kebebew
Mara Tignino*
Affiliation:
Lead Legal Specialist, Geneva Water Hub, Switzerland
Tadesse Kebebew
Affiliation:
Postdoctoral Researcher, University of Geneva, Platform for International Water Law, Geneva Water Hub, Switzerland
*
*Corresponding author email: [email protected]
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Abstract

Given the increasing size and functions of United Nations (UN) peace operations (POs) and the fact that they often operate in contexts where natural resources are degraded, POs have repercussions on the environment. Yet, there is not much literature on their obligations regarding the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflicts. This article provides insights into the obligations of POs in relation to armed conflict. First, it highlights POs’ customary international environmental law obligations. Second, it delves into their environmental obligations under the UN's internal rules and the host State's laws. Third, it explores obligations that arise from their mandates. In each of these sections, the article highlights the relevance and application of these obligations in armed conflicts. The last section examines the obligations of POs to protect the natural environment under international humanitarian law.

Keywords

peace operationsenvironmentUnited Nationsinternational humanitarian lawhuman rights law
Type
Other Actors
Information
International Review of the Red Cross , Volume 105 , Issue 924: Protecting the Environment in Armed Conflict , December 2023 , pp. 1543 - 1567
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the ICRC

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Footnotes

The advice, opinions and statements contained in this article are those of the author/s and do not necessarily reflect the views of the ICRC. The ICRC does not necessarily represent or endorse the accuracy or reliability of any advice, opinion, statement or other information provided in this article.

References

1 In this article, the term “peace operations” is used in its broadest sense and covers all forms of military and civilian operations established by the UN in relation to armed conflicts. See UNSC Res. 2594, 9 September 2021, Preamble (POs as peacekeeping operations and special political missions).

2 UN General Assembly, Report of the High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change: A More Secure World: Our Shared Responsibility, UN Doc. A/59/565, 2 December 2004, paras 22, 84.

3 See UN Environment Programme (UNEP), UN Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO) and UN Office of the Special Envoy for the Great Lakes, Experts’ Background Report on Illegal Exploitation and Trade in Natural Resources Benefitting Organized Criminal Groups and Recommendations on MONUSCO's Role in Fostering Stability and Peace in Eastern DR Congo, Final Report, 15 April 2015; Sarfati, Agathe, Toward an Environmental and Climate-Sensitive Approach to Protection in UN Peacekeeping Operations, International Peace Institute, 2022, pp. 6–7Google Scholar; Hegazi, Farah, Krampe, Florian and Smith, Elizabeth, Climate-Related Security Risks and Peacebuilding in Mali, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), 2021, pp. 1–2Google Scholar.

4 See Oli Brown, Peace Operations and the Challenges of Environmental Degradation and Resource Scarcity, SIPRI Background Paper, 2021, pp. 4–17; Ravier, Sophie, Vialle, Anne-Cecile, Doran, Russ and Stokes, John, “Environmental Experiences and Developments in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations”, in Bruch, Carl, Muffett, Carroll and Nichols, Sandra (eds), Governance, Natural Resources and Post-Conflict Peacebuilding, Routledge, Abingdon, 2016, pp. 195–197CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 See UN Department of Operational Support (DOS), “Environment”, available at: https://operationalsupport.un.org/en/environment (all internet references were accessed in August 2023); Maertens, Lucile and Shoshan, Malkit, Greening Peacekeeping: The Environmental Impact of UN Peace Operations, International Peace Institute, 2018, pp. 4–7Google Scholar.

6 ILC, Principles on Protection of the Environment in Relation to Armed Conflicts, with Commentaries, UN Doc. A/77/10, 2022 (PERAC Principles), Principle 7.

7 See ibid., Principle 7; UN Department of Peace Operations/Department of Operational Support (DPO/DOS), United Nations Environmental Management Handbook for Military Commanders in UN Peace Operations, 1st ed., March 2021 (Environmental Management Handbook), p. 7. See also Florian Krampe, Why United Nations Peace Operations Cannot Ignore Climate Change, SIPRI, 22 February 2021; Waleij, Annica, “Environmental Considerations in Peace Operations”, Journal of the Institution of Environmental Sciences, Vol. 29, No. 2, 2020Google Scholar; Leloup, Mathilde and Maertens, Lucile, “The Material Impact of Peace Operations on the Environment and Cultural Heritage”, in Dorussen, Han (ed.), Handbook on Peacekeeping and International Relations, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, 2022, pp. 271–275Google Scholar.

8 See e.g. UN Security Council, “Security Council Press Statement on Environmental Management of Peacekeeping Operations”, SC/13134-ENV/DEV/1830-PKO/700, 21 December 2017; Report of the Secretary-General: Implementation of the Recommendations of the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations, UN Doc. A/76/505, 2 November 2021, para. 9.

9 See UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations/Department of Field Support (UN DPKO/DFS), Environmental Policy for UN Field Missions, Ref. 2009.6, 1 June 2009 (2009 Environmental Policy); UN Secretary-General, Secretary-General's Bulletin on the Environmental Policy for the United Nations Secretariat, ST/SGB/2019/7, 4 September 2019; UN DPO/DFS, Waste Management Policy for UN Field Missions, 2018.14, November 2019; UN DOS, Environment Strategy for Field Missions, October 2019 (2019 Environment Strategy); Environmental Management Handbook, above note 7.

10 UN General Assembly, Report of the Secretary-General: Third Annual Progress Report on the Implementation of the Global Field Support Strategy, UN Doc. A/67/633, 12 December 2012, para. 17.

11 See Greening the Blue, “History of Greening the UN”, available at: www.greeningtheblue.org/history-greening-un; M. Leloup and L. Maertens, above note 7, p. 271.

12 UN General Assembly and UN Security Council, Report of the High-Level Independent Panel on Peace Operations on Uniting Our Strengths for Peace: Politics, Partnership and People, UN Doc. A/70/95–S/2015/446, 17 June 2015 (HIPPO), paras 292–294.

13 UN General Assembly, Report of the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations, UN Doc. A/75/19, 17 March 2021, para. 44. See also Declaration of Shared Commitments on the Action for Peacekeeping (A4P) Initiative, March 2018, para. 23.

14 See UN Peacekeeping, “Environmental Risk and Performance Management”, available at: https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/environmental-risk-and-performance-management; UNGA Res. 76/274, 29 June 2022, paras 83, 84; 2019 Environment Strategy, above note 9; UN DPO/DFS, Environmental Policy for Peacekeeping Operations and Field-Based Special Political Missions, Ref. DOS/2022.01, 1 April 2022 (2022 Environmental Policy), para. 11.

15 UN General Assembly and UN Security Council, The Future of United Nations Peace Operations: Implementation of the Recommendations of the High-Level Independent Panel on Peace Operations: Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc. A/70/357–S/2015/682, 2 September 2015, para. 129; 2009 Environmental Policy, above note 9, p. 7.

16 See OIOS, Audit of Implementation of the Environmental Action Plan in the United Nations Mission in the Republic of South Sudan, 2019/079, 27 August 2019, pp. 5–6; OIOS, Audit of Implementation of Environmental Action Plan in the United Nations Organizational Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 2019/075, 22 August 2019, pp. 5–6.

17 See Pierre-Marie Dupuy, Ginevra Le Moli and Jorge E. Viñuales, “Customary International Law and the Environment”, in Lavanya Rajamani and Jacqueline Peel (eds), The Oxford Handbook of International Environmental Law, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2021, p. 393; UNEP, Protecting the Environment during Armed Conflict: An Inventory and Analysis of International Law, Nairobi, 2009, p. 40; Mara Tignino and Öykü Irmakkesen, “Water in Peace Operations: The Case of Haiti”, Review of European, Comparative and International Environmental Law, Vol. 20, No. 1, 2020, p. 33. See also UN Human Rights Council (HRC), Human Rights and Access to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation, UN Doc. A/HRC/RES/15/9, 6 October 2010; HRC, The Human Right to a Clean, Healthy and Sustainable Environment, UN Doc. A/HRC/RES/48/13, 8 October 2021.

18 See Giovanni Distefano, Fundamentals of Public International Law: A Sketch of the International Legal Order, Brill Nijhoff, Leiden, 2019, pp. 54–57.

19 See Lassa Oppenheim, International Law: A Treatise, Vol. 1: Peace, 8th ed., ed. Hersch Lauterpacht, Longmans, Green & Co., London, 1955, pp. 261–262.

20 International Law Association (ILA), Final Report of the Committee on the Accountability of International Organizations, Berlin Conference, 2004.

21 ICJ, Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations, Advisory Opinion, ICJ Reports 1949, pp. 178–182.

22 See Carla Ferstman, International Organizations and the Fight for Accountability: The Remedies and Reparations Gap, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2017, p. 42; and see Terry D. Gill, Dieter Fleck, William H. Boothby and Alfons Vanheusden (eds), Leuven Manual on the International Law Applicable to Peace Operations, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2017 (Leuven Manual), p. 37.

23 ICJ, Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Conflict, Advisory Opinion, ICJ Reports 1996, para. 25.

24 See Scott Sheeran, “A Constitutional Moment? United Nations Peacekeeping in the Democratic Republic of Congo”, International Organizations Law Review, Vol. 8, No. 1, 2011, p. 115; Jan Klabbers, “Sources of International Organizations’ Law: Reflections on Accountability”, in Samantha Besson and Jean d'Aspremont (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the Sources of International Law, Vol. 1, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2018, p. 988.

25 See ICJ, Reparation for Injuries, above note 21, p. 179; ICJ, Interpretation of the Agreement of March 1951 between the WHO and Egypt, Advisory Opinion, ICJ Reports 1980, para. 37; ILA, above note 20, pp. 18–25; Dieter Fleck, “The Law Applicable to Peace Operations”, in Andrew Clapham and Paola Gaeta (eds), The Oxford Handbook of International Law in Armed Conflict, Vol. 1, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2014; Kristina Daugirdas, “How and Why International Law Binds International Organizations”, Harvard International Law Journal, Vol. 57, No. 2, 2016, p. 327.

26 For an overview of such sources, see UNEP, above note 17, pp. 34–43; see also ILC, Preliminary Report on the Protection of the Environment in Relation to Armed Conflicts, UN Doc. A/CN.4/674, 30 May 2014, paras 117–156. On existing IHL obligations relating to the protection of the natural environment in armed conflict, see International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), Guidelines on the Protection of the Natural Environment in Armed Conflict: Rules and Recommendations Relating to the Protection of the Natural Environment under International Humanitarian Law, with Commentary, Geneva, 2020 (ICRC Guidelines).

27 See UNEP, above note 17, p. 40; ILC, above note 26, paras 150–156. See also Kirsten Stefanik, “The Environment and Armed Conflict: Employing General Principles to Protect the Environment”, in Carsten Stahn, Jens Iverson and Jennifer S. Easterday (eds), Environmental Protection and Transitions from Conflict to Peace, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2017, pp. 93–118; P. Dupuy, G. Le Moli and J. Viñuales, above note 17, pp. 385–401.

28 For a reference to such sources, see Mara Tignino and Tadesse Kebebew, “The Legal Protection of Freshwater Resources and Related Installations during Warfare”, Journal of International Criminal Justice, Vol. 20, No. 5, 2022, p. 1200.

29 See ILC, above note 26, paras 150–153; P. Dupuy, G. Le Moli and J. Viñuales, above note 17, pp. 396–398.

30 ILC, above note 26, para. 133.

31 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, UN Doc. A/CONF.151/26, 12 August 1992 (Rio Declaration), Principle 15. For a discussion on the content and legal status of the principle, see K. Stefanik, above note 27, pp. 107–113; Jacqueline Peel, “Precaution”, in L. Rajamani and J. Peel (eds), above note 17, pp. 302–318.

32 ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, para. 124.

33 See ILC, above note 26, paras 125–132; K. Stefanik, above note 27, pp. 104–106; M. Tignino and T. Kebebew, above note 28, p. 1208.

34 Michael Bothe, Carl Bruch, Jordan Diamond and David Jense, “International Law Protecting the Environment during Armed Conflict: Gaps and Opportunities”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 92, No. 879, 2010, p. 584.

35 See ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, paras 30–36; Jean-Marie Henckaerts and Louise Doswald-Beck (eds), Customary International Humanitarian Law, Vol. 1: Rules, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005 (ICRC Customary Law Study), Rule 44, available at: https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1; M. Bothe et al., above note 34, pp. 584–586, 588–589; Michael Bothe, “Precaution in International Environmental Law and Precautions in the Law of Armed Conflict”, Göttingen Journal of International Law, Vol. 10, No. 1, 2020.

36 See PERAC Principles, above note 6, Principle 13, para. 4.

37 Ibid., Principle 3, para. 4.

38 ILC, Draft Articles on the Responsibility of International Organizations, with Commentaries, UN Doc. A/66/10, 2011 (DARIO), Art. 2(b). “Rules of the organization” means, “in particular, the constituent instruments, decisions, resolutions and other acts of the international organization adopted in accordance with those instruments, and established practice of the organization”.

39 See ibid., Art. 5, commentary para. 2, and Art. 10, commentary para. 7; International Law Discussion Group, Legal Responsibility of International Organisations in International Law: Summary of the International Law Discussion Group Meeting, Chatham House, London, 10 February 2011, p. 3.

40 UN General Assembly, Comprehensive Review of the Whole Question of Peacekeeping Operations in All Their Aspects: Report of the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations, UN Doc. A/54/839, 20 March 2000, paras 29, 82.

41 Leuven Manual, above note 22, p. 35. See also Henry Schermers and Niels Blokker, International Institutional Law, 6th ed., Brill Nijhoff, Leiden, 2018, pp. 758–759 (UN adopts broad rules governing POs that are “similar to national laws on armed forces”).

42 See Larry Maybee and Benarji Chakka (eds), Custom as a Source of International Humanitarian Law: Proceedings of the Conference to Mark the Publication of the ICRC Study “Customary International Humanitarian Law”, ICRC, New Delhi, 2005, pp. 246–248.

43 See Marten Zwanenburg, “United Nations and International Humanitarian Law”, Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, October 2015, para. 12. Cf. ILC, Guiding Principles Applicable to Unilateral Declarations of States Capable of Creating Legal Obligations, with Commentaries Thereto, UN Doc. A/61/10, 2006, para. 177.

44 Environmental Management Handbook, above note 7, p. 14.

45 See Nigel White, “Peacekeeping Doctrine: An Autonomous Legal Order?”, Nordic Journal of International Law Vol. 88, No. 1, 2019, p. 107.

46 UN Secretary-General, Secretary-General's Bulletin: Observance by United Nations Forces of International Humanitarian Law, ST/SGB/1999/13, 1999 (1999 Secretary-General's Bulletin), section 6.3.

47 See Leuven Manual, above note 22, p. 153.

48 See Daphna Shraga, “The Secretary-General's Bulletin on the Observance by the United Nations Forces of International Humanitarian Law: A Decade Later”, Israel Yearbook on Human Rights, Vol. 39, 2009, p. 360; M. Zwanenburg, above note 43; Ray Murphy and Siobhán Wills, “United Nations Peacekeeping Operations”, in Andre Nollkaemper, Ilias Plakokefalos and Jessica Schechinger (eds), The Practice of Shared Responsibility in International Law, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2018, p. 591.

49 United Nations, Code of Personal Conduct for Blue Helmets, 1999, Rules 1, 8.

50 See 2022 Environmental Policy, above note 14; O. Brown, above note 4; L. Maertens and M. Shoshan, above note 5.

51 See Leuven Manual, above note 22, pp. 84, 130–138.

52 UN General Assembly, Model Status-of-Forces Agreement for Peacekeeping Operations: Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc. A/45/594, 9 October 1990, para. 6.

53 See UNGA Res. 76/274, 29 June 2022, para. 83.

54 See UN DPKO/DFS, United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Principles and Guidelines, 2008 (Capstone Doctrine), pp. 81–82; Leuven Manual, above note 22, pp. 130–134; Andrés B. Muñoz Mosquera, “Respect for the Law of the Receiving State”, in Dieter Fleck (ed.), The Handbook of the Law of Visiting Forces, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2018.

55 Leuven Manual, above note 22, p. 31.

56 Environmental Management Handbook, above note 7, p. 28.

57 Capstone Doctrine, above note 54, p. 14.

58 African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, CAB/LEG/67/3 rev. 5, 21 ILM 58, 27 June 1981, Art. 24.

59 In relation to the continued application of IEL treaties during NIACs, see M. Bothe et al., above note 34, p. 581.

60 See Leuven Manual, above note 22, pp. 135–136; Dieter Fleck, “Legal Protection of the Environment”, in C. Stahn, J. Iverson and J. S. Easterday (eds), above note 27, p. 217.

61 See UN General Assembly, Manual on Policies and Procedures Concerning the Reimbursement and Control of Contingent-Owned Equipment of Troop/Police Contributors Participating in Peacekeeping Missions, UN Doc. A/C.5/69/18, 20 January 2015, pp. 193–194.

62 Leuven Manual, above note 22, p. 27.

63 Capstone Doctrine, above note 54, pp. 23–24.

64 Ibid., p. 16.

65 See UNSC Res. 1625, 14 September 2005, Preamble (addressing the Security Council's role in conflict prevention, particularly in Africa); UNSC Res. 2349, 31 March 2017, paras 22–28; UNSC Res. 2463, 29 March 2019, paras 3, 15; UNSC Res. 2666, 20 December 2022, para. 3; UN Security Council, above note 8; UN General Assembly, above note 13, para. 79.

66 See UNEP, Greening the Blue Helmets: Environment, Natural Resources and UN Peacekeeping Operations, Nairobi, 2012. See also Thomas Vervisch, Emery Mudinga and Godefroid Muzalia, MONUSCO's Mandate and the Climate Security Nexus, Policy Brief, available at: www.gicnetwork.be/policy-brief-monuscos-mandate-and-the-climate-security-nexus/.

67 A. Sarfati, above note 3, p. 6. See also UN Security Council, Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc. S/2021/423, 3 May 2021; UN Security Council, Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc. S/2022/381, 10 May 2022.

68 For the list of the relevant resolutions, see UN Security Council, above note 8.

69 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2612, 20 December 2021, para. 45; UNSC Res. 2640, 29 June 2022, paras 53–54; UNSC Res. 2347, 24 March 2017, para.19. See also A. Sarfati, above note 3, pp. 11–15; UN DOS, “DOS Environment Strategy for Peace Operations”, available at: https://operationalsupport.un.org/sites/default/files/dos_environment_strategy_execsum_phase_two.pdf; 2022 Environmental Policy, above note 14, para. 41.

70 UNSC Res. 2100, 25 April 2013, paras 16, 32 (support for preservation of cultural and historical sites).

71 See UNSC Res. 2640, 29 June 2022, paras 53, 54.

72 UNSC Res. 2666, 20 December 2022, para. 24(j); UNSC Res. 2217, 28 April 2015, paras 33(c), 34(c); UNSC Res. 2211, 26 March 2015, paras 15(g), 23; UNSC Res. 1509, 19 September 2003, para. 3(r). See also UN Security Council, “Maintenance of International Peace and Security: Natural Resources and Conflict: Statement by the President of the Security Council”, UN Doc. S/PRST/2007/22, 25 June 2007; UNEP, Environmental Cooperation for Peacebuilding Programme, Nairobi, 2016, pp. 20–35; UNEP, above note 66, pp. 9–10.

73 OIOS, Audit of Implementation of the Environmental Action Plan in the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic, 2019/053, 25 June 2019; UN General Assembly, Manual on Policies and Procedures Concerning the Reimbursement and Control of Contingent-Owned Equipment of Troop/Police Contributors Participating in Peacekeeping Missions, UN Doc. A/75/121, 2020, pp. 4, 10, 46. See also L. Maertens and M. Shoshan, above note 5, p. 13; UN Security Council, The UN Security Council and Climate Change: Tracking the Agenda after the 2021 Veto, Research Report No. 4, 30 December 2022, pp. 5–6; Daniel Forti and Emmanuelle Cousin, Contingent-Owned Equipment and Environmental Considerations in UN Peacekeeping Operations, Issue Brief, International Peace Institute, 2022.

74 UNSC Res. 2625, 15 March 2022, para. 3(b) and Preamble.

75 See e.g. UNSC Res. 2640, 29 June 2022, Preamble, paras 18, 26(b)(i), 54; UNSC Res. 2659, 14 November 2022, Preamble, para. 35(b)(v). See also UN Security Council, above note 73, p. 3; UNEP, Environmental Cooperation, above note 72, pp. 20–29.

76 2022 Environmental Policy, above note 14, para. 41.

77 PERAC Principles, above note 6, Principle 7, para. 5.

78 Ibid.

79 See UNSC Res. 2461, 27 March 2019, Preamble, para. 21. For a discussion on the role of POs in Somalia, see Jenna Russo, The UN Environmental and Climate Adviser in Somalia, International Peace Institute, 2022.

80 See Alexander Gilder, “The Effect of ‘Stabilization’ in the Mandates and Practice of UN Peace Operations”, Netherlands International Law Review, Vol. 66, No. 1, 2019, p. 47.

81 See Arts 2 and 3 common to the four Geneva Conventions.

82 For a summary of the relevant positions and arguments, including those of the United Nations, see Daphna Shraga, “The United Nations as an Actor Bound by International Humanitarian Law”, International Peacekeeping, Vol. 5, No. 2, 1998; Tristan Ferraro, “The Applicability and Application of International Humanitarian Law to Multinational Forces”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 95, No. 891–892, 2013; Marco Sassòli, International Humanitarian Law: Rules, Controversies, and Solutions to Problems Arising in Warfare, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, 2019, pp. 468–475.

83 See Nigel White, “In Search of Due Diligence Obligations in UN Peacekeeping Operations: Identifying Standards for Accountability”, Journal of International Peacekeeping, Vol. 23, No. 3–4, 2020, pp. 220–221; Haidi Willmot and Scott Sheeran, “The Protection of Civilians Mandate in UN Peacekeeping Operations: Reconciling Protection Concepts and Practices”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 95, No. 891–892, 2013, pp. 527–528.

84 See ICRC, Commentary on the Third Geneva Convention: Convention (III) relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, 2nd ed., Geneva, 2020 (ICRC Commentary on GC III), Art. 2, paras 278–89, 367–375, and Art. 3, paras 445–447.

85 1999 Secretary-General's Bulletin, above note 46; Capstone Doctrine, above note 54, p. 15; Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel, 2051 UNTS 363, 9 December 1994 (entered into force 15 January 1999), Art. 2(2).

86 See T. Ferraro, above note 82; Daphna Shraga, “UN Peacekeeping Operations: Applicability of International Humanitarian Law and Responsibility for Operations-Related Damage”, American Journal of International Law, Vol. 94, No. 2, 2000; Katarina Grenfell, “Perspective on the Applicability and Application of International Humanitarian Law: The UN Context”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 95, No. 891–892, 2013; Devon Whittle, “Peacekeeping in Conflict: The Intervention Brigade, MONUSCO, and the Application of International Humanitarian Law to United Nations Forces”, Georgetown Journal of International Law, Vol. 46, No. 3, 2015, p. 848; Michael Bothe and Thomas Dorschel, “The UN Peacekeeping Experience”, in Dieter Fleck (ed.), The Handbook of the Law of Visiting Forces, 1st ed., Oxford University Press, New York, 2001.

87 See Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, International Legal Protection of Human Rights in Armed Conflict, HR/PUB/11/01, New York and Geneva, 2011, pp. 28–30; ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 35, Rule 139; 1999 Secretary-General's Bulletin, above note 46; PERAC Principles, above note 6, Principle 7, para. 3.

88 See Leuven Manual, above note 22, p. 97; Ray Murphy, UN Peacekeeping in Lebanon, Somalia and Kosovo: Operational and Legal Issues in Practice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2009, p. 215; M. Sassòli, above note 82, p. 470.

89 See e.g. ICRC Commentary on GC III, above note 84, paras 278, 368; M. Sassòli, above note 82, pp. 468–475.

90 Report of Secretary-General on Steps to Implement SC Res. S/4741 (1961), UN Doc. S/4752, 27 February 1961, Annex VII, p. 3.

91 Michel Veuthey and Gian Luca Beruto (eds), Respecting International Humanitarian Law: Challenges and Responses, International Institute of Humanitarian Law, FrancoAngeli, Milan, 2014, pp. 33–35.

92 HIPPO, above note 12, para. 122.

93 See ICRC Commentary on GC III, above note 84, para. 281.

94 See ILC, Comments and Observations Received from International Organizations, UN Doc. A/CN.4/637, February 2011, p. 150.

95 See Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights, RULAC: Rule of Law in Armed Conflict, available at: www.rulac.org/classification/contemporary-challenges-for-classification. See also Damian Lilly, “The United Nations as a Party to Armed Conflict: The Intervention Brigade of MONUSCO in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)”, Journal of International Peacekeeping, Vol. 20, No. 3–4, 2016.

96 See Alexandre Faite and Jérémie Labbé Grenier (eds), Expert Meeting on Multinational Peace Operations: Applicability of International Humanitarian Law and International Human Rights Law to UN Mandated Forces (Geneva, 11–12 December 2003): Report, ICRC, Geneva, 2004, p. 62; Eric David and Ola Engdahl, “How Does the Involvement of a Multinational Peacekeeping Force Affect the Classification of a Situation?”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 95, No. 891–892, 2013, pp. 664–665.

97 See ICRC Commentary on GC III, above note 84, paras 280, 447. See also Leuven Manual, above note 22, pp. 93–97; M. Sassòli, above note 82, pp. 471–472; T. Ferraro, above note 82, pp. 580–583.

98 See ICRC Commentary on GC III, above note 84, para. 480; Leuven Manual, above note 22, pp. 102–104; Tristan Ferraro, “The ICRC's Legal Position on the Notion of Armed Conflict Involving Foreign Intervention and on Determining the IHL Applicable to This Type of Conflict”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 97, No. 900, 2015, pp. 1230–1233; Ralph Mamiya and Tobias Vestner, “Revisiting the Law on UN Peace Operations’ Support to Partner Forces”, Journal of Conflict and Security Law, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2022.

99 See ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, para. 302; Philippe Antoine, “International Humanitarian Law and the Protection of the Environment in Time of Armed Conflict”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 32, No. 291, 1992.

100 See The Status of Forces Agreement between the United Nations and the Government of the Republic of South Sudan Concerning the United Nations Mission in South Sudan, Juba, 8 August 2011, paras 6(a)–(b). The ICRC indicates that this has been the practice since the mid-1990s: see ICRC Commentary on GC III, above note 84, fn. 248.

101 ICRC Guidelines, above note 26. However, it should be noted that whether and how certain IHL rules apply to the natural environment is the subject of some debate (see para. 23).

102 See ibid., Rules 5–9; ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 35, Rule 43.

103 ICJ, Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, ICJ Reports 1996, para. 33.

104 ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, para. 95; ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 35, Rules 43–45.

105 See UNEP, above note 17, p. 52; M. Bothe et al., above note 34, pp. 576–579.

106 See ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, Rule 8, para. 124; ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 35, Rule 44. See also Raphaël van Steenberghe, “The Interplay between International Humanitarian Law and International Environmental Law: Towards a Comprehensive Framework for a Better Protection of the Environment in Armed Conflict”, Journal of International Criminal Justice, Vol. 20, No. 5, 2022, pp. 1128–1131.

107 See ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, Rules 5–6; ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 35, Rule 43; PERAC Principles, above note 6, Principle 14, commentary para.3.

108 See ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, Rule 7; ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 35, Rule 43; PERAC Principles, above note 6, Principle 14, commentary paras 4–7.

109 See ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, paras 117–122; M. Bothe et al., above note 34, pp. 577–578.

110 See ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, Rule 8; ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 35, Rule 44; PERAC Principles, above note 6, Principle 14, commentary para. 8.

111 See ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, Rule1, para. 44.

112 ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 35, Rule 44; ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, para. 124.

113 See UNEP, above note 17, p. 18.

114 See ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, Rule 9, para. 138.

115 See ibid., Rules 10–12.

116 1999 Secretary-General's Bulletin, above note 46, sections 6.7, 6.8, 6.6 respectively.

117 See Environmental Management Handbook, above note 7, p. 37.

118 See ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, Rules 13–15. See also 1999 Secretary-General's Bulletin, above note 46, section 6.6; PERAC Principles, above note 6, Principle 16.

119 See 1999 Secretary-General's Bulletin, above note 46, section 6.6.

120 See ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, Rules 19–25.

121 See 1999 Secretary-General's Bulletin, above note 46, section 6.2.

122 See ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 35, Rule 45; ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, Rule 2.

123 ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, para. 47.

124 1999 Secretary-General's Bulletin, above note 46.

125 See ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, Rule 2, paras 49–72; PERAC Principles, above note 6, Principle 13, paras 5–9.

126 See Britta Sjöstedt, The Role of Multilateral Environmental Agreements: A Reconciliatory Approach to Environmental Protection in Armed Conflict, Hart, Oxford, London, New York, New Delhi and Sydney, 2021, p. 51; M. Tignino and T. Kebebew, above note 28, pp. 1210–1213.

127 See ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, Rule 1, para. 42; ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 35, Rule 44.

128 See M. Bothe et al., above note 34, p. 575.

129 See ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, Rule 3, para. 76; ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 35, Rule 45.

130 See 1999 Secretary-General's Bulletin, above note 46, section 6.1.

131 See ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, Rule 4; ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 35, Rule 147; PERAC Principles, above note 6, Principle 15.

132 See ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 35, Rule 147; ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, para. 91.

133 See ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, para. 93; ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 35, Rule 147; PERAC Principles, above note 6, Principle 15, paras 3, 10.

134 ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 35, Rule 148; ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, para. 94; PERAC Principles, above note 6, Principle 15, paras 7–8.

135 M. Sassòli, above note 82, p. 83.

136 PERAC Principles, above note 6, Principle 15.

137 Ibid., Principle 15, para. 10.

138 See 1999 Secretary-General's Bulletin, above note 46, sections 5.6, 6.9 respectively.

139 See D. Shraga, above note 48, pp. 372–373.

140 See ILC, Draft Articles on the Effects of Armed Conflicts on Treaties, with Commentaries, UN Doc. A/66/10, 2011, Annex, Article 7, para. 101; ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, paras 29–36; UNEP, above note 17, pp. 34–46; M. Bothe et al., above note 34, pp. 588–589.

141 See PERAC Principles, above note 6, p. 136, para. 4, and Principle 7.

142 Ibid., Principle 19 (emphasis added).

143 See e.g. K. Stefanik, above note 27, pp. 113–115; R. van Steenberghe, above note 106.

144 ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, para. 26.

145 See 2022 Environmental Policy, above note 14, paras 35–40.

146 Environmental Management Handbook, above note 7, pp. 5, 10, 37, 68–70; 2022 Environmental Policy, above note 14, para. 104.

147 See Environmental Management Handbook, above note 7, p. 69; 2022 Environmental Policy, above note 14, para. 105.

148 See 2019 Environment Strategy, above note 9, pp. 3–4.

149 See M. Sassòli, above note 82, p. 470.

150 ICJ, Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Judgment, ICJ Reports 1986, para. 220.

151 See Jean-Marie Henckaerts, “Common Article 1: A Lynchpin in the System to Ensure Respect for International Humanitarian Law”, ILA Reporter, 11 July 2016, available at: https://ilareporter.org.au/2016/11/common-article-1-a-lynchpin-in-the-system-to-ensure-respect-for-international-humanitarian-law-jean-marie-henckaerts/.

152 See UN General Assembly, Report of the Secretary-General on the Work of the Organization, UN Doc. A/51/1, 1996, para. 117.

153 UN General Assembly and UN Security Council, Human Rights Due Diligence Policy on United Nations Support to Non-United Nations Security Forces, UN Doc. A/67/775 S/2013/110, 5 March 2013.

154 See N. White, above note 83.

155 UN DPO, The Protection of Civilians in United Nations Peacekeeping, Ref. 2019.17, 1 November 2019, paras 27, 45, 50–62.

156 See Happold, Matthew, “Comment – Obligations of States Contributing to UN Peacekeeping Missions under Common Article 1 of the Geneva Conventions”, in Krieger, Heike (ed.), Inducing Compliance with International Humanitarian Law: Lessons from the African Great Lakes Region, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2015, pp. 388–390Google Scholar; Smith, Leanne M., “The Obligation to Ensure Respect for IHL in the Peacekeeping Context: Progress, Lessons and Opportunities”, in Massingham, Eve and McConnachie, Annabel (eds), Ensuring Respect for International Humanitarian Law, Routledge, Abingdon, 2021, pp. 151–154Google Scholar.

157 See ICTY, The Prosecutor v. Kupreskic et al., Case No. IT-95-16-T, Judgment (Trial Chamber), 14 January 2000, para. 519 (“with the consequence that each and every member of the international community has a ‘legal interest’ in their observance and consequently a legal entitlement to demand respect for such obligations”); ICTY, The Prosecutor v. Anto Furundžija, Case No. IT-95-17/1-T, Judgment (Trial Chamber), 10 December 1998, para. 151.

158 See UN Security Council, The Promotion and Strengthening of the Rule of Law in the Maintenance of International Peace and Security: International Humanitarian Law, UN Doc. S/PV8596, 13 August 2019, p. 3.

159 See ICRC Commentary on GC III, above note 84, para. 215.

160 M. Sassòli, above note 82, p. 469; L. Smith, above note 156, p. 146 (Smith identifies collaboration between the UN and the ICRC as one way to implement the obligation to ensure respect for IHL).

161 See ICRC Commentary on GC III, above note 84, paras 171–175.

162 ICRC, “Peacekeeping Operations: ICRC Statement to the United Nations”, International Committee of the Red Cross, 30 October 2017, available at: www.icrc.org/en/document/peacekeeping-operations-icrc-statement-united-nations-2017.

163 See Engdahl, Ola, “Compliance with International Humanitarian Law in Multinational Peace Operations”, Nordic Journal of International Law, Vol. 78, No. 4, 2009, p. 517CrossRefGoogle Scholar; M. Happold, above note 156, pp. 383–384.

164 See ICRC Commentary on GC III, above note 84, paras 176–216; Dörmann, Knut and Serralvo, Jose, “Common Article 1 to the Geneva Conventions and the Obligation to Prevent International Humanitarian Law Violations”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 96, No. 895–896, 2014CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Théo Boutruche and Marco Sassòli, Expert Opinion on Third States’ Obligations vis-à-vis IHL Violations under International Law, with a Special Focus on Common Article 1 to the 1949 Geneva Conventions, Norwegian Refugee Council, 8 November 2016.

165 See e.g. ICRC Commentary on GC III, above note 84, para. 153; Robin Geiß, “Common Article 1 of the 1949 Geneva Conventions – Scope and Content of the Obligation to ‘Ensure Respect’ – ‘Narrow but Deep’ or ‘Wide and Shallow’?”, in H. Krieger (ed.), above note 156; Schmitt, Michael N. and Watts, Sean, “Common Article 1 and the Duty to ‘Ensure Respect”’, International Law Studies, Vol. 96, 2020Google Scholar; Federal Court of Canada, Daniel Turp v. The Minister of Foreign Affairs, Case No. T-462-16, 24 January 2017, para. 71.

166 See ICRC Commentary on GC III, above note 84, paras 186–206. See also ICJ, Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, 9 July 2004, paras 158–163.

167 ICRC Guidelines, above note 26, Rule 26(B).

168 See ICRC Commentary on GC III, above note 84, paras 171–175; Timo Koivurova and Krittika Singh, “Due Diligence”, in Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, 2022, paras 22–27, 45; Emilie Max, The UN Security Council and Common Article 1: Understanding the Role of Peacekeeping Operations in Ensuring Respect for IHL, Working Paper No. 6, Geneva Academy, 2021.

169 See A. Sarfati, above note 3, pp. 8–9.

170 Rio Declaration, above note 31, Principle 25.

171 PERAC Principles, above note 6, Principle 22.

172 See United Nations, Greening the Blue Report 2021: The UN System's Environmental Footprint and Efforts to Reduce It, 18 February 2022, pp. 12–14; UNSC Res. 2349, 31 March 2017, para.26; UNGA Res. 63/281, 11 June 2009; United Nations, “Security Council Statement on Possible Security Implications of Climate Change Important When Climate Impacts Drive Conflict”, SC/10332, 20 July 2011, available at: https://press.un.org/en/2011/sc10332.doc.htm. See also Jean-Pierre Lacroix, “Protecting Peace: How UN Peacekeepers Are Part of the Climate Solution”, 21 September 2019, available at: https://medium.com/we-the-peoples/protecting-peace-how-un-peacekeepers-are-part-of-the-climate-solution-707c7fecba6e; O. Brown, above note 4, p. 12.

173 See HIPPO, above note 12, para. 66; A. Sarfati, above note 3, p. 7.