1 Alonso Soto, “Brazil Drug Gangs Spark Prison Riot, 56 Dead”, Reuters, 2 January 2017; Nátalia Lucas, “Detentos foram esquartejados e decapitados em briga de facções em presídio de Manaus”, O Globo, 2 January 2017.

2 Jill Langlois, “126 Inmates Still at Large in Brazil after a Prison Riot that Left 56 Dead”, Los Angeles Times, 6 January 2017.

3 “Umanizzare esclarece o seu papel”, available at: www.umanizzarebrasil.com.br/noticias/umanizzare-esclarece-o-seu-papel/ (all internet references were accessed in October 2017).

4 Euan McKirdy and Jay Croft, “At Least 56 Killed in Brazil Prison Riot over Drug Turf, Officials Say”, CNN, 3 January 2017, available at: http://edition.cnn.com/2017/01/02/americas/brazil-prison-riot/.

5 Robert Muggah and Ilona Szabó de Carvalho, “Brazil's Deadly Prison System”, New York Times, 4 January 2017.

6 This term is borrowed from Li, Murray, The Will to Improve: Governmentality, Development and the Practices of Politics, Duke University Press, Durham, NC, 2007 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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9 Walmsley, Roy, World Prison Population List, 11th ed., Institute for Criminal Research Policy, Birkbeck, University of London, 2016, p. 2 Google Scholar, available at: www.prisonstudies.org/sites/default/files/resources/downloads/world_prison_population_list_11th_edition_0.pdf.

10 Ungar, Mark and Magaloni, Ana Laura, “Latin America's Prisons: A Crisis of Criminal Policy and Democratic Rule”, in Bergman, Marcelo and Whitehead, Laurence (eds), Criminality, Public Security and the Challenge to Democracy in Latin America, University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, IN, 2009, p. 224 Google Scholar.

11 This number is based on data provided by the World Prison Population List, above note 9, including Caribbean countries.

12 In the case of Haiti, this extremely low number should mostly be seen as a reflection of the near-total destruction of all public infrastructure, including all the country's prisons, after the 2010 earthquake.

13 World Prison Population List, above note 9, pp. 5–7.

14 M. Ungar and A. L. Magaloni, above note 10, p. 226.

15 Elías Carranza, “Prisons in Latin America and the Caribbean: What to Do, What not to Do”, United Nations Asia and Far East Institute for the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, Resource Material Series No. 94, Fuchu, 2014, p. 193, available at: www.unafei.or.jp/english/pdf/RS_No94/No94_VE_Carranza.pdf.

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24 Pinheiro, Paulo Sergio, “The Rule of Law and the Underprivileged in Latin America: Introduction”, in Mendez, Juan E., O'Donnell, Guillermo and Pinheiro, Paulo Sergio, The (Un)Rule of Law and the Underprivileged in Latin America, University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, IN, 1999 Google Scholar.

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46 See, for example, Echeverría, Sebastián Salinero, “¿Porqué aumenta la población penal en Chile? Un estudio criminológica longitudinal”, Revista Ius et Praxis, Vol. 18, No. 1, 2012, pp. 113–115 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; M. L. Grajales and M. L. Hernandez, above note 38; Pasara, Luis et al. , Independencia judicial insuficiente, prisión preventiva deformada: Los casos de Argentina, Colombia, Ecuador y Peru, Due Process of Law Foundation, Washington, DC, 2013 Google Scholar.

47 P. Hathazy and M.-M. Müller, above note 7; J. Bailey and L. Dammert, above note 44; H. Frühling, above note 44.

48 For Argentina and Chile, see P. Hathazy, “Democratizing Leviathan”, above note 43, pp. 220–246.

49 On criminal procedure, see ibid., p. 146; Riego, Christian, “The Chilean Criminal Procedure Reform”, International Journal of the Sociology of Law, Vol. 26, No. 4, 1998, p. 449 CrossRefGoogle Scholar for the Chilean case. For a regional trend, see P. Hathazy, “Punitivism with a Human Face”, above note 43, p. 314. Grajales and Hernandez, above note 38, and Paladines, above note 38, observe analogous subordination of human rights standards to security concerns in Venezuela and Ecuador.

50 See, for instance, Cleary, Edward L., Mobilizing for Human Rights in Latin America, Kumarian Press, Bloomflied, CT, 2007 Google Scholar.

51 See Special Issue on “Rebirth of the Prison”, Crime, Law and Social Change, Vol. 65, No. 3, 2016 Google Scholar, edited by Paul Hathazy and Markus-Michael Müller.

52 Luciana Pol, “Failed Drug Policies in Latin America: The Impact on Prisons and Human Rights”, Penal Reform International, 24 April 2015, available at: www.penalreform.org/blog/failed-drug-policies-in-latin-america-impact-on/.

53 M.-M. Müller, above note 7, p. 62.

54 Metaal, Pien and Youngers, Coletta, Systems Overload: Drug Laws and Prisons in Latin America, Transnational Institute and Washington Office on Latin America, Washington, DC, 2011, p. 5 Google Scholar, available at: www.tni.org/files/tni-systems_overload-def.pdf.

55 Corda, Alejandra, Drug Policy Reform in Latin America: Discourse and Reality, Colectivo de Estudios Drogas y Derecho, 2015 Google Scholar.

56 See, for instance, Lemaitre, Julieta and Albarracin, Mauricio “Patrullando la dosis personal: La represión cotidiana y los debates de las políticas públicas sobre el consumo de drogas ilíticas en Colombia”, in Uribe, Alejandro Gaviria and Londoño, Daniel Mejía (eds), Políticas antidroga en Colombia: Éxitos, fracasos, extravíos, Bogota, Universidad de los Andes, 2011 Google Scholar.

57 M.-M. Müller, above note 30, p. 232.

58 Milburn, Michael A. and Conrad, Sheree D., The Politics of Denial, MIT Press, Boston, MA, 1996, p. 2 Google Scholar.

59 Ibid ., p. 4.

60 S. Cohen, above note 28, p. 30.

61 Ibid .

62 E. D. Arias and D. M. Goldstein, above note 39.

63 P. Chevigny, above note 32; Sozzo, Máximo, “Populismo punitivo, proyecto normalizador y ‘prisión-depósito’ en Argentina”, Sistema Penal y Violencia, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2010 Google Scholar; Cisneros, Lucia Nuñovero, “Las razones y los sentimientos del encierro: consideraciones político económicas del aumento de las poblaciones penitenciarias en el Perú”, in Constant, Chloe (ed.), Pensar las cárceles de América Latina, Instituto de Estudios Andinos, Lima, 2016 Google Scholar.

64 Beckett, Katherine, Making Crime Pay: Law and Order in Contemporary American Politics, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1997 Google Scholar.

65 Rey, German (ed.), Los relatos periodísticos del crimen: Como se cuenta el delito en la prensa escrita latinoamericana , Fundación Friedrich Ebert, Bogotá, 2007 Google Scholar. See also Cevallos, Jenny Pontón, “The Crime Section in Ecuadorian Media: A Problem of Citizen Security?”, Revista Urvio, No. 5, September 2008 Google Scholar; Cevallos, Jenny Pontón, “Prensa y situación carcelaria en el país”, Boletin Ciudad Segura: FLACSO sede Ecuador, No. 1, January 2006, p. 12 Google Scholar, available at: http://repositorio.flacsoandes.edu.ec/bitstream/10469/2355/1/BFLACSO-CS1.pdf.

66 S. Cohen, above note 28, p. 27.

67 These dynamics were already observed by Teresa Caldeira in the late 1990s in her study of the Carandirú prison massacre in Sao Paulo, Brazil, where all these implicatory denials of prison violence and of the atrocities committed in the recovery of the prisons were present. See Caldeira, Teresa P. R., “The Massacre at the Casa de Detencao”, in City of Walls: Crime, Segregation and Citizenship in Sao Paulo, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA 2000, pp. 175–182 Google Scholar.

68 Garland, David, “Penality and the Penal State”, Criminology, Vol. 51, No. 3, 2013 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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70 Ibid ., p. 21.

71 P. Hathazy, “Democratizing Leviathan”, above note 43, pp. 244–245, 258–259; P. Hathazy, above note 17.

72 For the Argentine cases, see P. Hathazy, “Democratizing Leviathan”, above note 43, pp. 272–273.

73 On the politicization of judicial positions and punitive stances, see Pasara, Luis, “Prisión preventiva e independencia judicial en Colombía, Ecuador y Perú”, in La justicia en la región andina, Fondo Editorial, PUC-Peru, Lima, 2015, pp. 443–467 Google Scholar.

74 Pásara, Luis, “El ministerio público en la reforma procesal penal de Chile” and “Acerca de la reforma procesal penal en Chile, Ecuador y Perú”, in La justicia en la región andina, Fondo Editorial, PUC-Peru, Lima, 2015, pp. 115–152 Google Scholar; Lemgruber, Julita et al. , Ministerio Público: Guardiao da democracia brasileira?, Centro de Estudos de Seguranca e Cidadanía, Rio de Janeiro, 2016 Google Scholar.

75 P. Hathazy, “Democratizing Leviathan”, above note 43, p. 200; Jörg Alfred Stippel, “Acceso a la justicia en materia penitenciaria: ‘Una deuda pendiente y un desafió para el futuro’”, available at: www.oas.org/dsp/documentos/ministerial/pres%20Stippel%20esp-CE00379S04.pdf; Leal, Cesar Barros, La ejecución penal en América Latina a la luz de los derechos humanos, Porrúa, ILANUD and UNAM, 2009 Google Scholar.

76 Vial, Andres Dominguez (ed.), El sol en la ciudad: Estudios de prevención del delito y modernización penitenciaria, Editora Nacional de Derechos Humanos, Santiago de Chile, 1993 Google Scholar.

77 For the Argentine and Chilean cases, see P. Hathazy, “Democratizing Leviathan”, above note 43, pp. 275–276, 258–260; P. Hathazy “Punitivism with a Human Face”, above note 43.

78 On the informality of prisons in Latin America, see Birkbeck, Christopher, “Imprisonment and Internment: Comparing Penal Institutions North and South”, Punishment and Society, Vol. 13, No. 3, 2011 CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On the everyday markets of goods and information in prisons, see, for example, Francesca Cerbini, “El espacio carcelario y la organización interna de los reclusos de San Pedro (La Paz, Bolivia): Repensando el concepto de vigilar y castigar”, and Andres Antillano, “La prisión en dos tiempos: La cárcel venezolana entre el neolibralismo y la revolucíon bolivariana”, in C. Constant (ed.), above note 63.

79 On the professionalizing tendencies of political agents in the new Latin American democracies, see M. Cavarozzi, above note 34, p. 56.

80 For Brazil, see Salla, Fernando, “As rebeliões nas prisões: Novos significados a partir da experiência Brasileira”, Sociologias, Vol. 8, No. 16, 2006 Google Scholar. For Chile and Argentina, see P. Hathazy, “Democratizing Leviathan”, above note 43, p. 225. For Venezuela, see A. Antillano, above note 78.

81 A prime example is the process of relocation observed in the Brazilian state of Sao Paulo, the biggest prison system in Latin America, as documented in Silvestre, Giane, “O proceso de interiorizacao penitenciaria em Sao Paulo”, in Dias de visita: Uma sociología da punicao e das prisoes, Alameda, São Paulo, 2012, pp. 121–130 Google Scholar.

82 See Draper, Susana, Afterlives of Confinement: Spatial Transitions in Postdictatorship Latin America, Pittsburgh University Press, Pittsburgh, PA, 2012 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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85 The human rights reports of the 1970s gave renown to human rights organizations documenting the aberrant human rights violations during dictatorship. See Dezalay, Yves and Garth, Bryant G., “From the Cold War to Kosovo: The Rise and Renewal of the Field of International Human Rights”, Annual Review of Law and Social Science, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2006 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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87 See Stippel, Jörg Alfred, Las cárceles y la búsqueda de una política criminal para Chile, LOM, Santiago de Chile, 2006, p. 34 Google Scholar; S. Salinero Echeverría, above note 46, p. 115.

88 Three weeks after the first massive protest in prisons in Chile, the justice and public works ministers announced a programme to build prisons for 16,000 inmates, putting them in the hands of private companies: El Mercurio, 14 January 2001.

89 The government privatized prisons “the French way”, retaining security and supervision of prisons and contracting out building and operations, as well as provision of food, laundry, medical and rehabilitation “services”: El Mercurio, 14 January 2001. For an analysis of the privatization process, see P. Hathazy, “Democratizing Leviathan”, above note 43, pp. 226–229.

90 Their 2002 report showed overcrowding, lack of hygiene, insufficient food, prisons controlled by inmates with high levels of violence, deaths, and a highly tense order produced by the collaboration between abusive and exploitative gangs and despotic guards. The report also denounced systematic torture and physical abuses. See Castro, Alvaro and Hernandez, Martin Besio, “Chile: Las cárceles de la miseria”, Pena y Estado: Revista Latinoamericana de Political Criminal, Vol. 6, No. 6, 2005 Google Scholar.

91 CODEPU, “¿Quienes somos?”, available at: www.codepu.cl/pagina-ejemplo/.

92 CONFRAPECO, “Confraternidad de Familiares y Amigos de Presos Comunes – CONFAPRECO”, Idealist.org, available at: www.idealist.org/es/ong/5f3558ab54bd4125b4ddd95146bfdb6a-confraternidad-de-familiares-y-amigos-de-presos-comunes-confapreco-santiago-de-chile.

93 de Derechos Humanos, Centro, Informe anual sobre derechos humanos en Chile 2009, Universidad Diego Portales, Santiago de Chile, 2010, p. 96 Google Scholar.

94 This was a private institution owned by the Federal Republic of Germany that under the banner of technical assistance (technische Zusammenarbeit) provided development aid to countries in the global South between 1975 and 2011.

95 See, for instance, Feest, Johannes, “Hacia un sistema de control de la ejecucion de penas no privativas de libertad”, Boletín Jurídico del Ministerio de Justicia, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2003 Google Scholar.

96 See above note 80.

97 Rapporteur on the Rights of Persons Deprived of Liberty “Rapporteurship on the Rights of Persons Deprived of Liberty Concludes Visit to Chile”, Press Release No. 39/08, 2008, available at: www.cidh.oas.org/Comunicados/English/2008/39.08eng.htm.

98 In 1994 the IACHR declared that steps must be made “to remedy inhuman conditions in prisons”, and it began dealing with them in its annual report of 1995. It issued a recommendation in 1998, has produced country studies since 1998, and created a special rapporteurship on the rights of persons deprived of liberty in its 119th session, in March 2004. See: www.oas.org/en/iachr/pdl/default.asp.

99 The Council was formed entirely of “specialists” from think-tanks and NGOs: the Fundación Paz Ciudadana, Center for the Study of Security, led by Hugo Frühling; the FLACSO Security and Citizenship Program, directed by Lucía Dammnert; and Cristian Riego from the Justice Studies Center of the Americas. The think-tanks and university expert were joined by the Supreme Court prosecutor, and representatives of the Ministries of Justice and the Interior. The minister of justice asked them to work on rehabilitation. See Consejo para la Reforma Penitenciaria, Recomendaciones para una nueva política penitenciaria, Ministerio de Justicia de Chile, Santiago de Chile, 2010 Google Scholar.

100 Ibid .

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103 Ibid ., pp. 113–118, section “Reformas y avances desde 2010 a la fecha”.

104 Law 20.588, “Indulto general”, 22 May 2012, available at: www.leychile.cl/Navegar?idNorma=1040511.

105 Law 20.587, “Modifica el régimen de libertad condicional y establece en caso de multa la pena alternativa de trabajos comunitarios”, 8 July 2012, available at: www.leychile.cl/Navegar?idNorma=1040829.

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116 M.-M. Müller, above note 36, pp. 101–102.

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121 Nigel Rodley, “Torture and Conditions of Detention in Latin America”, in J. E. Mendez, G. O'Donnell and P. S. Pinheiro, above note 24, pp. 39–40.

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123 Y. Dezalay and B. G. Garth, above note 83, p. 249.

124 Ibid .