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The applicability of international humanitarian law to acts of violence perpetrated by unidentified armed individuals in the Sahel: The case of Burkina Faso

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 May 2022

Sanwé Médard Kienou
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Abstract

Burkina Faso has suffered attacks most often attributed to unidentified armed individuals. These attacks occur in an area which is under the influence of terrorist groups as well as criminal groups. Instability does not stem from a prior armed conflict, but from a continuous deterioration resulting from unclaimed attacks. The challenge then is to know whether international humanitarian law (IHL) can apply in a context where the perpetrators of violence are not identified. This requires visiting the conditions of applicability of IHL in non-international armed conflict to assess their relevance in a context of production of violence without identification of the perpetrators.

Keywords

non-identificationapplicabilityinternational humanitarian lawnon-international armed conflictsSahelviolencearmed individuals
Type
Implementing IHL in the Sahel
Information
International Review of the Red Cross , Volume 103 , Issue 918: The Sahel , December 2021 , pp. 901 - 921
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the ICRC.

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References

1 ACLED, Unidentified Armed Groups, July 2012, p. 12, available at: https://www.acleddata.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/ACLED_Unidentified-Armed-Groups-Working-Paper_July-2012.pdf (all internet references were accessed in April 2022).

2 Nadia Chahed, “Burkina Faso : plus de 2000 personnes ont fui leurs villages après une série d'attaques dans le Sahel”, Agence Anodolu, 30 April 2021, available at: https://www.aa.com.tr/fr/afrique/burkina-faso-plus-de-2-mille-personnes-ont-fui-leurs-villages-apr%C3%A8s-une-s%C3%A9rie-d-attaque-dans-le-sahel/2225741. According to that article, “A total of 2224 persons (including 438 women and 1308 children) have fled the villages of Koumbri, Yatakou and Sikiré in the commune of Seytenga (which lies in the Sahel region of northern Burkina Faso) following attacks by unidentified armed individuals on Monday that led to 18 deaths, according to an announcement by the regional directorate of the ministry responsible for humanitarian action.” (our translation) In an administrative communiqué dated 7 August 2020, the governor of Burkina Faso's Est region reported that “today, 7 August 2020, at about 12:00 hrs, unidentified armed individuals burst into the livestock market in Namoungo, a village in the commune of Fada N'Gourma, and attacked the people there”. (our translation) Administrative communiqué No. 2020-024/MATDC/REST/GVRT-FGRM/CAB, 7 August 2020.

3 Franceinfo, “Syrie : le groupe Lafarge reconnaît avoir indirectement financé des groupes armés”, 2 March 2017, available at: https://www.francetvinfo.fr/economie/emploi/metiers/droit-et-justice/syrie-le-groupe-lafarge-reconnait-avoir-indirectement-finance-des-groupes-armes_2078359.html.

4 William Assanvo et al., “Violent Extremism, Organised Crime and Local Conflicts in Liptako-Gourma”, Institute for Security Studies, West Africa Report 26, 10 December 2019, p. 3, available at: https://issafrica.org/research/west-africa-report/violent-extremism-organised-crime-and-local-conflicts-in-liptako-gourma.

5 ACLED, above note 1, pp. 1–2.

6 Crisis Group, “The Social Roots of Jihadist Violence in Burkina Faso's North”, Africa Report No. 254, 12 October 2017, pp. 3–4, available at: https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/west-africa/burkina-faso/254-social-roots-jihadist-violence-burkina-fasos-north.

7 Ibid., p. 9.

8 Ibid., pp. 10–12.

9 Crisis Group, “Burkina Faso: Stopping the Spiral of Violence”, Africa Report No. 287, 24 February 2020, p. 12, available at: https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/sahel/burkina-faso/287-burkina-faso-sortir-de-la-spirale-des-violences.

10 Ibid.

11 Ibid., p. 11.

12 Ministère de l'Economie, des Finances et du Développement, coopération pour le développement, Défis sécuritaires et coopération au développement au Burkina Faso, Rapport 2019, June 2020, p. 68.

13 ODDH, Burkina Faso, Risque d'un nouveau Rwanda ? Bilan de la Violence au Burkina Faso 04 avril 2015 – 31 mai 2020, Ouagadougou, 22 June 2020, p. 24.

14 W. Assanvo et al., above note 4, pp. 9–19.

15 Claiming responsibility for attacks is not the only means whereby a party to a conflict can be identified, especially in the case of armed groups. Other means of identification include confidential dialogue with the parties, intelligence-gathering by armed and security forces, testimony from witnesses or victims of abuses, judicial measures, the media, research papers, etc.

16 ICTY, Prosecutor v. Ramush Haradinaj, Idrij Balaj and Lahi Brahimaj, Case No. IT-04-84-T, Judgment (Trial Chamber I), 3 April 2008, para. 60, available at: https://www.icty.org/x/cases/haradinaj/tjug/en/080403.pdf.

17 Zakaria Dabone, Le droit international public relatif aux groupes armés non étatiques, Schulthess Médias Juridiques SA, Basle, Geneva and Zurich, 2012, p. 83 (our translation).

18 Ibid.

19 Ibid.

20 Crisis Group, above note 9, pp. 33–8.

21 Ministère de l'Economie, des Finances et du Développement, coopération pour le développement, above note 12, p. 69 (our translation).

22 Le Figaro, “Burkina : L'attaque de dimanche contre les gendarmes a fait au moins 53 morts”, 17 November 2021, available at: https://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-actu/burkina-au-moins-20-morts-dans-une-attaque-contre-un-detachement-de-gendarmerie-20211114.

23 Jeune Afrique, “Burkina Faso : colère et indignation à l'inhumation de gendarmes tués à Inata”, 24 November 2021, available at: https://www.jeuneafrique.com/1270246/politique/burkina-faso-colere-et-indignation-a-linhumation-de-gendarmes-tues-a-inata/.

24 Voice of America, “Burkina Faso : l'attaque d'Inata illustre la déroute de l'armée face aux jihadistes”, 23 November 2021, available at: https://www.voaafrique.com/a/burkina-l-attaque-d-inata-illustre-la-d%C3%A9route-de-l-arm%C3%A9e-face-aux-jihadistes/6324376.html.

25 Lefaso.net, “Burkina : Un deuil de 48 heures décrété après la mort de 41 personnes dont Ladji Yoro dans une attaque dans le Nord”, 26 December 2021, available at: https://lefaso.net/spip.php?article110088.

26 Ibid.

27 Le Point Afrique, “Burkina Faso : l'attaque d'un convoi fait 80 morts”, 19 August 2021, available at: https://www.lepoint.fr/afrique/burkina-faso-l-attaque-d-un-convoi-fait-47-morts-19-08-2021-2439467_3826.php.

28 Ibid.

29 Siébou Kansié and Jules Natabzanga Ouédraogo, “Burkina Faso : destruction de pylônes, d'aérodrome, des édifices publics, rien n’échappe à la colère des terroristes”, Libre info, 8 February 2022, available at: https://libreinfo.net/burkina-faso-destruction-de-pylones-daerodrome-des-edifices-publics-rien-echappe-encore-a-la-colere-des-terroristes/.

30 Hamadou Ouédraogo, “Burkina : Titao se réjouit de retrouver la lumière”, Minute.bf, 22 February 2022, available at: https://minute.bf/burkina-titao-se-rejouit-de-retrouver-la-lumiere/.

31 ICTY, Prosecutor v. Slobodan Milosevic, Decision on Motion for Judgment of Acquittal, Case No. IT-02-54-T (Trial Chamber III), 16 June 2004, para. 23, available at: https://www.icty.org/x/cases/slobodan_milosevic/tdec/en/040616.htm.

32 W. Assanvo et al., above note 4, pp. 9–10.

33 Crisis Group, above note 9, p. 14.

34 Crisis Group, “A Course Correction for the Sahel Stabilisation Strategy”, Africa Report No. 299, 1 February 2021, p. 4, available at: https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/sahel/299-course-correction-sahel-stabilisation-strategy.

35 Conseil économique et social, Mécanismes de lutte contre le blanchiment de capitaux et le financement du terrorisme en zone UEMOA : cas du Burkina Faso, Rapport public 2020, August 2020, p. 27 (our translation).

36 Inter-Governmental Action Group against Money Laundering and Terrorism Financing in West Africa, cited by Elie Kaboré in “Financement du terrorisme: pour recruter, former et entretenir les combattants et leurs familles”, L'Economiste du Faso, available at: https://www.leconomistedufaso.bf/2021/07/19/financement-du-terrorisme-pour-recruter-former-et-entretenir-les-combattants-et-leurs-familles/ (our translation).

37 Sam Mednick, “Burkina Faso's Secret Peace Talks and Fragile Jihadist Ceasefire”, The New Humanitarian, 11 March 2021, available at: https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/2021/03/11/exclusive-burkina-faso-s-secret-peace-talks-and-fragile-jihadist-ceasefire.

38 Rodenhauser, Tilman, Organizing Rebellion: Non-State Armed Groups under International Humanitarian Law, Human Rights Law, and International Criminal Law, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2018, p. 72CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

39 Sivakumaran, Sandesh, The Law of Non-International Armed Conflict, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2012, p. 175Google Scholar.

40 International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, The Prosecutor versus Jean-Paul Akayesu, Case No. ICTR-96-4-I, Judgment (Chamber I), 2 September 1998, para. 626, available at: https://ucr.irmct.org/LegalRef/CMSDocStore/Public/English/Judgement/NotIndexable/ICTR-96-04/MSC15217R0000619817.PDF.

41 ICTY, Prosecutor v. Ljube Boškoski and Johan Tarčulovski, Case No. IT-04-82-T, Judgment (Trial Chamber II), 10 July 2008, para. 199, available at: https://www.icty.org/x/cases/boskoski_tarculovski/tjug/en/080710.pdf.

42 Conseil économique et social, above note 35, p. 27.

43 Morgane Le Cam, “Au Burkina Faso, la colère monte après l'attaque meurtrière du poste d'Inata”, Le Monde, 19 November 2021, available at: https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2021/11/19/au-burkina-faso-la-colere-monte-apres-l-attaque-meurtriere-du-poste-d-inata_6102704_3212.html.

44 Nadoun Coulibaly, “Burkina Faso : ce que l'on sait de l'attaque de Solhan”, Jeune Afrique, 7 June 2021, available at: https://www.jeuneafrique.com/1184499/politique/burkina-ce-que-lon-sait-sur-lattaque-de-solhan/.

45 Ibid.

46 Rose-Marie Bouboutou-Poos, “Violences djihadistes : pourquoi le Burkina Faso a du mal à vaincre les groupes armés ?”, 8 June 2021, BBC News Afrique, available at: https://www.bbc.com/afrique/region-57385879.

47 France 24, “Burkina Faso : la tragédie de Solhan ‘ne restera pas impunie’, assure le Premier ministre”, 8 June 2021, available at: https://www.france24.com/fr/afrique/20210608-burkina-faso-la-trag%C3%A9die-de-solhan-ne-restera-pas-impunie-assure-le-premier-ministre.

48 RFI, “Massacre de Solhan: entre le GSIM et l'EI, l'enjeu de la réputation”, Radio France Internationale, 25 June 2021, available at: https://www.rfi.fr/fr/afrique/20210625-massacre-de-solhan-entre-le-gsim-et-l-ei-l-enjeu-de-la-r%C3%A9putation.

49 ICTY, Prosecutor v. Fatmir Limaj, Haradin Bala and Isak Musliu, Case No. IT-03-66-T, Judgment (Trial Chamber II), 30 November 2005, paras 102–3 and paras 110–11, available at: https://www.icty.org/x/cases/limaj/tjug/en/lim-tj051130-e.pdf.

50 Ibid., para. 101.

51 Crisis Group, above note 9, Executive Summary.

52 Ibid., p. 15.

53 Ibid.

54 While the absence of any claims of responsibility does not necessarily mean that these attacks were not carried out by armed groups, it does seem to indicate that they were the work of individuals. The author believes that the Burkina Faso attacks were carried out by individuals.

55 RFI, above note 48 (our translation).

56 Z. Dabone, above note 17, p. 84.

57 Ibid., pp. 83–4 (our translation).

58 ICTY, The Prosecutor v. Duško Tadic, Case No. IT-94-1-A, Judgment (Appeals Chamber), 15 July 1999, para. 120, available at: https://www.icty.org/x/cases/tadic/acjug/en/tad-aj990715e.pdf.

59 Crisis Group, above note 9, p. 16.

60 ICTY, above note 16, para. 68.

61 Brussels Appeals Court (30th Chamber), 25 February 2019, cited by Marine Wéry, “La jurisprudence relative à la clause d'exclusion prévue à l'article 141 bis du Code pénal : la difficile application du droit international humanitaire par les cours et tribunaux belges”, Revue de droit militaire et de droit de la guerre, Vol. 57, 2018–2019, available at: http://www.ismllw.org/REVIEW/2018-2019%20ART%20Wery.php.

62 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), Supplement to the Report Prepared by the International Committee of the Red Cross Entitled “International Humanitarian Law and the Challenges of Contemporary Armed Conflicts”. International Humanitarian Law and Other Legal Regimes: Interplay in Situations of Violence, available at: https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/resources/documents/report/5ubcvx.htm.

63 ICRC, “International Humanitarian Law and the Challenges of Contemporary Armed Conflicts. Document Prepared by the International Committee of the Red Cross for the 30th International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, Geneva, Switzerland, 26–30 November 2007”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 89, No. 867, 2007, p. 4, available at: https://international-review.icrc.org/articles/international-humanitarian-law-and-challenges-contemporary-armed-conflicts.

64 Éric David, “Le concept de conflit armé : enjeux et ambigüités”, in Vincent Chetail (ed.), Permanence et mutation du droit des conflits armés, Bruylant, Brussels, 2013, p. 5 (our translation).

65 Bradley, Martha M., “Revisiting the Notion of ‘Organized Armed Group’ in Accordance with Common Article 3: Exploring the Inherent Minimum Threshold Requirements”, African Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law, Vol. 2018, No. 1, 2018, pp. 65–6Google Scholar.

66 International Criminal Court, The Prosecutor v. Bosco Ntaganda, Case No. ICC-01/04-02/06, Pre-Trial Chamber II, Decision on the Prosecutor's Application under Article 58, 13 July 2012, para 49, available at: https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/record.aspx?docNo=ICC-01/04-02/06-36-Red.

67 ICTY, above note 58, para. 120.

68 Corn, Geoffrey S., “Contemplating the True Nature of the Notion of ‘Responsibility’ in Responsible Command”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 96, No. 895/896, December 2015, p. 906Google Scholar (emphasis in the original), available at: https://international-review.icrc.org/articles/contemplating-true-nature-notion-responsibility-responsible-command.

69 Andrea Bianchi and Yasmin Naqvi, International Humanitarian Law and Terrorism, Hart Publishing, Oxford, 2011, p. 107.

70 Michael N. Schmitt, “Classification of Cyber Conflict”, International Law Studies, Vol. 89, No. 233, 2013, p. 255, available at: https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/ils/vol89/iss1/12/.

71 Brussels Appeals Court, 12th Chamber, Criminal Cases, Judgment No. 2016/1262, 9 FC 2015, 14 April 2016, cited by Vaios Koutroulis, “How Have the Belgian Courts Dealt with the Interplay between IHL and Counter-Terrorism Offences?”, in Proceedings of the Bruges Colloquium, Terrorism, Counter-Terrorism and International Humanitarian Law, 17th Bruges Colloquium, 20–21 October 2016, Collegium No. 47, College of Europe/ICRC, 2017, p. 115 (our translation), available at: https://www.coe-icrc.eu/en/previous-editions.

72 Brussels Francophone Trial Chamber, Case Nos. FD35.97.15-12, FD35.97.5-13 and FD35.98.144-15, 29 July 2015, cited by V. Koutroulis, ibid., p. 114 (our translation).

73 M. Wéry, above note 61, pp. 123–7.

74 V. Koutroulis, above note 71, pp. 116–17.

75 The ICRC took a different approach, stating that the Al-Nusra Front could be classified as an armed group that had participated in non-international armed conflict in Syria.

76 ICTY, above note 41, para. 177; S. Sivakumaran, above note 39, p. 167.

77 Ministère de l'Economie, des Finances et du Développement, coopération pour le développement, above note 12, p. 69.

78 Nadia Chahed, “Burkina Faso : 3 280 écoles fermées à cause du terrorisme”, Anadolu Agency, 5 January 2022, available at: https://www.aa.com.tr/fr/afrique/burkina-faso-3-280-%C3%A9coles-ferm%C3%A9es-%C3%A0-cause-du-terrorisme-gouvernement/2466211#.

79 The state of emergency was proclaimed on 31 December 2018.

80 In the context of the Sahel, “defence forces” include both security forces (police, gendarmes and the national guard) and armed forces.

81 Action contre le faim, “Burkina Faso: Second Biggest Spike in Displacement Since Crisis Began”, 10 March 2022, available at: https://www.actioncontrelafaim.org/en/press/second-biggest-spike-in-displacement-since-crisis-began/.

82 Eléonore Abou Ez, “Au Burkina Faso, le pouvoir semble dépassé par l'insécurité grandissante”, France info, 17 November 2021, available at: https://www.francetvinfo.fr/monde/afrique/politique-africaine/au-burkina-faso-le-pouvoir-semble-depasse-par-linsecurite-grandissante_4847285.html.

83 Lassaad Ben Ahmed, “Burkina Faso : 478 militaires tués depuis 2015 dans des attaques (Armée)”, Anadolu Agency, 1 November 2021, available at: https://www.aa.com.tr/fr/afrique/burkina-faso-478-militaires-tu%C3%A9s-depuis-2015-dans-des-attaques-arm%C3%A9e/2409045.

84 Voice of America, “Une dizaine de gendarmes tuées; plusieurs portés disparus”, 14 March 2022, available at: https://www.voaafrique.com/a/une-dizaine-de-gendarmes-burkinab%C3%A8-tu%C3%A9s-plusieurs-port%C3%A9s-disparus-/6483737.html.

85 ODDH, above note 13, p. 27.

86 Ibid., p. 24.

87 Law No. 002-2020/AN concerning volunteers for the defence of the homeland of 21 January 2020.

88 Articles 7, 8, 9 and 15 of Law No. 002-2020/AN concerning volunteers for the defence of the homeland of 21 January 2020.

89 Antonin Tisseron, Pandora's Box. Burkina Faso, Self-Defense Militias and VDP Law in Fighting Jihadism, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, Dakar-Fann, 2021, p. 23, available at: http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/fes-pscc/17590.pdf.

90 Ibid.

91 ICTY, The Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadic a/k/a “DULE”, Case No. IT-94-1-A, Decision on the Defence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction, 2 October 1995, para. 70, available at: https://www.icty.org/x/cases/tadic/acdec/en/51002.htm.

92 Cited in ICTY, above note 49, para. 89 (emphasis in the original).

93 Armand Kinda, “Nouna : les terroristes donnent dix jours aux populations de Soin pour quitter le village”, Minute.bf, 15 March 2022, available at: https://minute.bf/nouna-les-terroristes-donnent-10-jours-aux-populations-de-soin-pour-quitter-le-village/.

94 Annyssa Bellal, “ICRC Commentary of Common Article 3: Some Questions Relating to Organized Armed Groups and the Applicability of IHL”, EJIL:Talk!, 5 October 2017, available at: https://www.ejiltalk.org/icrc-commentary-of-common-article-3-some-questions-relating-to-organized-armed-groups-and-the-applicability-of-ihl/.

95 Geiß, Robin, “Armed Violence in Fragile States: Low-Intensity Conflicts, Spillover Conflicts, and Sporadic Law Enforcement Operations by Third Parties”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 91, No. 873, March 2009Google Scholar, available at: https://international-review.icrc.org/articles/armed-violence-fragile-states-low-intensity-conflicts-spillover-conflicts-and-sporadic-law.