1 Institute for Economics and Peace, Global Terrorism Index 2020: Measuring the Impact of Terrorism, Sydney, November 2020, p. 4.

2 Ibid., p. 12.

3 Congressional Research Service, Algeria: In Focus, 6 July 2021, pp. 1–2, available at: https://sgp.fas.org/crs/row/IF11116.pdf (all internet references were accessed in November 2021).

4 Morris, Nancy A., LaFree, Gary and Karlidag, Eray, “Counter-Terrorism Policies in the Middle East: Why Democracy Has Failed to Reduce Terrorism in the Middle East and Why Protecting Human Rights Might Be More Successful”, Criminology & Public Policy, Vol. 20, No. 1, 2020Google Scholar.

5 Isaiah Corbin and Bret Billet, “An Empirical Analysis of Terrorism in the Middle East and Africa”, Wartburg College, 2014, available at: http://public.wartburg.edu/mpsurc/images/Corbin.pdf; Ann M. Wainscott, Bureaucratizing Islam: Morocco and the War on Terror, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2017.

6 Bahgat, Gawdat, “Terrorism in the Middle East”, Journal of Social, Political and Economic Studies, Vol. 32, No. 2, 2007Google Scholar; Fletcher, Bill, “‘Terrorism’ in the Middle East”, New York Beacon, Vol. 13, No. 29, 2006Google Scholar; Paul Thomas, Responding to the Threat of Violent Extremism: Failing to Prevent, Bloomsbury Academic, London, 2012; Piri, Sadegh and Piri, Ali Yavar, “The Role of the US in Terrorism in the Middle East”, Journal of Politics and Law, Vol. 9, No. 3, 2016CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sawalha, Ihab Hanna, “A Context-Centered Root Cause Analysis of Contemporary Terrorism”, Disaster Prevention and Management, Vol. 26, No. 2, 2017CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 A. M. Wainscott, above note 5.

8 Zuzana Buronova, “An Analysis of Counter-Terrorism Strategies in Indonesia and Saudi Arabia”, master's thesis, Charles University, Faculty of Social Sciences, Czech Republic, 2018.

9 See, for example, Christopher Boucek, Saudi Arabia's “Soft” Counterterrorism Strategy: Prevention, Rehabilitation, and Aftercare, Carnegie Papers, 2008, available at: www.jstor.org/stable/resrep13021?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents; Sour, Lotfi, “The Algerian Domestic Strategy of Counter-Terrorism from Confrontation to National Reconciliation”, Romanian Review of Political Sciences and International Relations, Vol. 12, No. 2, 2015Google Scholar.

10 See, for example, Eman Ragab, “Counter-Terrorism Policies in Egypt: Effectiveness and Challenges”, European Institute of the Mediterranean, 2016, available at: www.euromesco.net/publication/counter-terrorism-policies-in-egypt-effectiveness-and-challenges/.

11 Francesca Galli, “The Legal and Political Implications of the Securitisation of Counter-Terrorism Measures across the Mediterranean”, European Institute of the Mediterranean, 2008, available at: www.euromesco.net/publication/the-legal-and-political-implications-of-the-securitisation-of-counter-terrorism-measures-across-the-mediterranean/.

12 Kim, Wukki and Sandler, Todd, “Middle East and North Africa: Terrorism and Conflicts”, Global Policy, Vol. 11, No. 4, 2020, p. 424CrossRefGoogle Scholar, available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1758-5899.12829; Todd Sandler and Justin George, “Military Expenditure Trends for 1960–2014 and What They Reveal”, Global Policy, Vol. 7, No. 2, 2016, available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1758-5899.12328.

13 Alexander R. Dawoody, Eradicating Terrorism from the Middle East: Policy and Administrative Approaches, Springer International, Cham, 2016.

14 W. Kim and T. Sandler, above note 12, p. 424.

15 Institute for Economics and Peace, above note 1, p. 43.

16 Walter Enders and Eric Olson, “Measuring the Economic Costs of Terrorism”, The Oxford Handbook of the Economics of Peace and Conflict, Oxford University Press, Oxford and New York, 2012, available at: www.economics.uci.edu/~mrgarfin/OUP/papers/Enders.pdf.

17 David Gold, Economics of Terrorism, New School University Working Paper, available at: www.files.ethz.ch/isn/10698/doc_10729_290_en.pdf.

18 Bardwell, Harrison and Iqbal, Mohib, “The Economic Impact of Terrorism from 2000 to 2018”, Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2021CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

19 Institute for Economics and Peace, above note 1, p. 32.

20 Human Rights Council, Negative Effects of Terrorism on the Enjoyment of Human Rights: Study of the Human Rights Council Advisory Committee, UN Doc. A/HRC/AC/24/CRP.1, 22 January 2020.

21 Gavin Gibbon, “Middle East Data Breaches Cost $6m Each, Says New Report”, Arabian Business, 27 October 2019, available at: www.arabianbusiness.com/technology/431560-middle-east-data-breaches-cost-6m-each-says-new-report.

22 Anthony H. Cordesman and Abdullah Toukan, The National Security Economics of the Middle East: Comparative Spending, Burden Sharing, and Modernization, Center for Strategic and International Studies, 22 March 2017, available at: https://tinyurl.com/mc5kstx8.

23 F. Galli, above note 11.

24 I. Corbin and B. Billet, above note 5; see also Z. Buronova, above note 8.

25 I. Corbin and B. Billet, above note 5.

26 Law Library of Congress, Algeria, Morocco, Saudi Arabia: Response to Terrorism, Global Legal Research Directorate, 2015, available at: https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/llglrd/2016295702/2016295702.pdf.

27 Council of Europe, “War and Terrorism”, 2017, available at: www.coe.int/en/web/compass/war-and-terrorism.

28 UN General Assembly, “Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism”, 1994, available at: https://legal.un.org/avl/ha/dot/dot.html.

29 Legal Information Institute, “18 U.S. Code § 2331 – Definitions”, Cornell Law School, available at: www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/2331; see also Law Library of Congress, above note 26.

30 A specified action is one that involves serious violence against a person or persons or endangers the life of others, causes serious damage to property, causes serious risk to the health or safety of the public or a section of the public, or interferes with or seriously disrupts basic infrastructures. See Council of Europe, Profiles on Counter-Terrorist Capacity: United Kingdom, Committee of Experts on Terrorism (CODEXTER), 2007, available at: www.legislationline.org/download/id/3145/file/UK_CODEXTER_Profile_2007.pdf.

31 Ibid.

32 Z. Buronova, above note 8.

33 International Social Science Council, Hazards Information Profile on Violence, Paris (in press); Z. Buronova, above note 8.

34 Hutchinson, Marta Crenshaw, “The Concept of Revolutionary Terrorism”, Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 16, No. 3, 1972CrossRefGoogle Scholar, available at: www.jstor.org/stable/173583; see also Kelsey Lilley, “A Policy of Violence: The Case of Algeria”, Davidson College, E-International Relations, 2012, available at: www.e-ir.info/2012/09/12/a-policy-of-violence-the-case-of-algeria/.

35 M. Crenshaw Hutchinson, above note 34.

36 See, for example, Human Rights Watch, “Saudi Arabia: New Counterterrorism Law Enables Abuse”, 23 November 2017, available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/11/23/saudi-arabia-new-counterterrorism-law-enables-abuse#; Tamburini, Francesco, “Anti-Terrorism Laws in the Maghreb Countries: The Mirror of a Democratic Transition that Never Was”, Journal of Asian and African Studies, Vol. 53, No. 8, 2018CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Amnesty International, “Turkey: Measures to Prevent Terrorism Financing Abusively Target Civil Society and Set Dangerous International Precedent”, 17 June 2021, available at: www.amnesty.org/en/latest/press-release/2021/06/turkey-measures-to-prevent-terrorism-financing-abusively-target-civil-society-and-set-dangerous-international-precedent/.

37 The Arab Convention for the Suppression of Terrorism defines terrorism as “[a]ny act or threat of violence, whatever its motives or purposes, that occurs in the advancement of an individual or collective criminal agenda and seeking to sow panic among people, causing fear by harming them, or placing their lives, liberty or security in danger, or seeking to cause damage to the environment or to public or private installations or property or to [occupy] or seiz[e] them, or seeking to jeopardise a national resource”. Arab Convention on the Suppression of Terrorism, 22 April 1998, Art. 1(2), available at: www.refworld.org/docid/3de5e4984.html. The Convention was adopted within the framework of the League of Arab States and was signed by the ministers of justice and interior of all the Arab member States. As of 2004, seventeen countries have deposited instruments of ratification with the General Secretariat of the League of Arab States. A full list of these countries is available at: www.un.org/unispal/document/auto-insert-186442/.

38 Human Rights Watch, above note 36.

39 Law Library of Congress, above note 26.

40 Ibid.

41 Ibid.

42 Ibid.

43 Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms while Countering Terrorism on his Mission to Saudi Arabia, UN Doc. A/HRC/40/XX/Add.2, 6 June 2018, pp. 5–6, available at: www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Terrorism/SR/A.HRC.40.%20XX.Add.2SaudiArabiaMission.pdf; see also Patrick Wintour, “UN Accuses Saudi Arabia of Using Anti-Terror Laws to Justify Torture”, The Guardian, 6 June 2018, available at: www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jun/06/un-accuses-saudi-arabia-of-using-anti-terror-laws-to-justify-torture.

44 Turkey, Law to Fight Terrorism, Act No. 3713, 12 April 1991 (amended 1995, 1999, 2003, 2006, 2010) (Anti-Terror Law), available at: www.legislationline.org/download/id/3727/file/Turkey_anti_terr_1991_am2010_en.pdf.

45 Ibid.

46 See, for example, Amnesty International, Turkey: Deepening Backslide in Human Rights, Submission for the UN Universal Periodic Review, 35th Session of the UPR Working Group, 7 August 2019, available at: www.amnesty.org/en/documents/eur44/0834/2019/en/.

47 Amnesty International, “Turkey: First Academic to Go to Prison for Signing Peace Petition in a Flagrant Breach of Freedom of Expression”, 29 April 2019, available at: www.amnesty.org/en/documents/eur44/0290/2019/en/.

48 Morocco, Code Pénal, 26 November 1962, available at: www.refworld.org/docid/54294d164.html; Albert Caramés Boada (ed.) and Júlia Fernàndez Molina, No Security without Rights: Human Rights Violations in the Euro-Mediterranean Region as Consequence of the Anti-Terrorist Legislations, International Institute for Nonviolent Action, 2017.

49 A. Caramés Boada (ed.) and J. Fernàndez Molina, above note 48. See also Human Rights Council, Report of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention: Mission to Morocco, UN Doc. A/HRC/27/48/Add.5, 4 August 2014, available at: www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/Session31/Documents/A-HRC-31-51-Add-2.doc.

50 Uzzi Ohana, “The Securitisation of Others: Fear, Terror, Identity”, Sixth Pan-European Conference of International Relations: Making Sense of a Pluralist World, University of Turin, 12–15 September 2007.

51 Christian Kaunert and Sarah Leonard, “The Collective Securitisation of Terrorism in the European Union”, UWE Bristol Research Repository, 2018, p. 3, available at: https://uwe-repository.worktribe.com/OutputFile/856849.

52 Barry Buzan, Ole Wæver and Jaap de Wilde, Security: A New Framework for Analysis, Lynne Rienner, Boulder, CO, 1998, p. 21.

53 Saud Al-Sharafat, “Securitization of the Coronavirus Crisis in Jordan: Successes and Limitations”, Washington Institute, Fikra Forum, 11 May 2020, available at: www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/securitization-coronavirus-crisis-jordan-successes-and-limitations.

54 Ibid.

55 F. Galli, above note 11, p. 5; see also Mabon, Simon, “Existential Threats and Regulating Life: Securitization in the Contemporary Middle East”, Global Discourse, Vol. 8, No. 1, 2018CrossRefGoogle Scholar, available at: https://eprints.lancs.ac.uk/id/eprint/89177/1/Existential_Threats_and_Regulating_Life.pdf.

56 Pratt, Nicola and Rezk, Dina, “Securitizing the Muslim Brotherhood: State Violence and Authoritarianism in Egypt after the Arab Spring”, Security Dialogue, Vol. 50, No. 3, 2019, p. 241CrossRefGoogle Scholar; see also Vuori, Juha A., “Illocutionary Logic and Strands of Securitization: Applying the Theory of Securitization to the Study of Non-Democratic Political Orders”, European Journal of International Relations, Vol. 14, No. 1, 2008CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

57 N. Pratt and D. Rezk, above note 56, p. 241.

58 Ibid.

59 S. Mabon, above note 55, p. 3.

60 Ibid.

61 UK Cabinet Office, The National Security Strategy of the United Kingdom: Security in an Interdependent World, March 2008, available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/228539/7291.pdf.

62 S. Mabon, above note 55, p. 3.

63 Louise Fawcett, International Relations of the Middle East, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2019, p. 219.

64 Ibid.

65 S. Mabon, above note 55, p. 5.

66 Ibid.

67 Ibid.

68 Ibid.

69 F. Galli, above note 11.

70 Stefano M. Torelli, “European Union and the External Dimension of Security: Supporting Tunisia as a Model in Counter-Terrorism Cooperation”, European Institute of the Mediterranean, 2017, available at: www.euromesco.net/publication/the-european-union-and-the-external-dimension-of-security-supporting-tunisia-as-a-model-in-counter-terrorism-cooperation/.

71 Ibid., p. 21.

72 Ibid.

73 Z. Buronova, above note 8.

74 I. Corbin and B. Billet, above note 5.

75 Ibid., p. 3.

76 Noorhaidi Hasan, Bertus Hendriks, Floor Janssen and Roel Meijer, Counter-Terrorism Strategies in Indonesia, Algeria and Saudi Arabia, ed. Roel Meijer, Netherlands Institute of International Relations Clingendael, 2012, available at: www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/counter-terrorism-strategies-indonesia-algeria-and-saudi-arabia.

77 Ibid.

78 Ibid., p. 6.

79 Ricardo Neefjes, “Counterterrorism Policy in Morocco”, master's thesis, Utrecht University, Faculty of Humanities, 2017, available at: http://dspace.library.uu.nl/handle/1874/353663; Benjamin Aziza, “Morocco's Unique Approach to Countering Violent Extremism and Terrorism”, Small Wars Journal, 21 December 2018, available at: https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/moroccos-unique-approach-countering-violent-extremism-and-terrorism.

80 Law Library of Congress, above note 26, p. 12; see also Mohamed El Dahshan and Mohammed Masbah, Synergy in North Africa: Furthering Cooperation, Chatham House, January 2020, available at: www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/2020-01-2020-Synergy-North-Africa.pdf.

81 R. Neefjes, above note 79. See also Mohammed Masbah, “The Limits of Morocco's Attempt to Comprehensively Counter Violent Extremism”, Middle East Brief, No. 118, Brandeis University, May 2018, available at: www.brandeis.edu/crown/publications/middle-east-briefs/pdfs/101-200/meb118.pdf.

82 R. Neefjes, above note 79; Clive Williams, “Counterterrorism Cooperation in the Maghreb: Morocco Looks Beyond Marrakech”, The Strategist, Australian Strategic Policy Institute, 12 December 2018, available at: www.aspistrategist.org.au/counterterrorism-cooperation-in-the-maghreb-morocco-looks-beyond-marrakech/.

83 Law Library of Congress, above note 26; Alaoui, Assia Bensalah, “Morocco's Security Strategy: Preventing Terrorism and Countering Terrorism”, European View, Vol. 16, 2017CrossRefGoogle Scholar, available at: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12290-017-0449-3.

84 Law Library of Congress, above note 26.

85 Sour, Lotfi, “The Algerian Domestic Strategy of Counter-Terrorism from Confrontation to National Reconciliation”, Romanian Review of Political Sciences and International Relations, Vol. 12, No. 2, 2015Google Scholar; Michael Greco, “Algeria's Strategy to Overcome Regional Terrorism”, The National Interest, 27 February 2019, available at: https://nationalinterest.org/feature/algerias-strategy-overcome-regional-terrorism-45742.

86 Law Library of Congress, above note 26; Anna Louise Strachan, The Security Sector and Stability in Algeria, K4D Helpdesk Report, UKAid, 29 May 2018, available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5b4874e5ed915d48048316ae/Algeria_security_sector.pdf. See also US Department of State, “Country Reports on Terrorism 2019: Algeria”, Bureau of Counterterrorism, 2019, available at: www.state.gov/reports/country-reports-on-terrorism-2019/algeria/.

87 L. Sour, above note 85; see also Ellie B. Hearne and Nur Laiq, “A New Approach? Deradicalization Programs and Counterterrorism”, International Peace Institute, June 2010, pp. 3–4, available at: www.ipinst.org/wp-content/uploads/publications/a_new_approach_epub.pdf.

88 L. Sour, above note 85.

89 Alexis Arieff, Algeria: Current Issues, Congressional Research Service, 22 February 2011, available at: https://tinyurl.com/tmvbwjc6; US Department of State, Integrated Country Strategy: Algeria, 18 September 2018, p. 2, available at: www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/ICS-Algeria_UNCLASS-508.pdf. See also Rasheed Oyewole Olaniyi, “Algeria: The Struggle against Al-Qaeda in the Maghreb”, in Usman A. Tar (ed.), Routledge Handbook of Counterterrorism and Counterinsurgency in Africa, Routledge, Abingdon, 2021.

90 Human Rights Council, above note 20, p. 1.

91 Law Library of Congress, above note 26.

92 Z. Buronova, above note 8.

93 Ibid.

94 Ibid., p. 1.

95 Patrick Wintour, “Gulf Plunged into Diplomatic Crisis as Countries Cut Ties with Qatar”, The Guardian, 5 June 2017, available at: www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jun/05/saudi-arabia-and-bahrain-break-diplomatic-ties-with-qatar-over-terrorism.

96 A. M. Wainscott, above note 5, p. 32.

97 Ibid.

98 Council of Europe, Profiles on Counter-Terrorist Capacity: United Kingdom, CODEXTER, April 2017, available at: www.legislationline.org/download/id/3145/file/UK_CODEXTER_Profile_2007.pdf.

99 A. M. Wainscott, above note 5.

100 F. Tamburini, above note 36, p. 1.

101 US Department of State, Country Reports on Terrorism 2016, Bureau of Counterterrorism, July 2017, available at: www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/crt_2016.pdf.

102 Morocco, Law to Combat Terror, Law No. 03-03, Official Bulletin of the Kingdom of Morocco, No. 5112, 29 May 2003; Morocco, Bill to Amend Counterterrorism Law, Law No. 86.14, Official Bulletin of the Kingdom of Morocco, No. 6365, June 2015.

103 US Department of State, above note 101, p. 210.

104 A. Arieff, above note 89.

105 Ibid.

106 R. Neefjes, above note 79, p. 21.

107 Ibid.

108 John T. Nugent, “The Defeat of Turkish Hizballah as a Model for Counter-Terrorism Strategy”, Calhoun: The NPS Institutional Archive, 2004, available at: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/36729892.pdf.

109 Adil Rasheed, “Countering the Threat of Radicalisation: Theories, Programmes and Challenges”, Journal of Defence Studies, Vol. 10, No. 2, 2016, pp. 57–58, available at: https://idsa.in/system/files/jds/jds_10_2_2016_countering-the-threat-of-radicalisation.pdf; Sara Brzuszkiewicz, “Saudi Arabia: The De-Radicalization Program Seen from Within”, Italian Institute for International Political Studies, 28 April 2017, available at: www.ispionline.it/en/pubblicazione/saudi-arabia-de-radicalization-program-seen-within-16484.

110 A. Rasheed, above note 109, p. 58.

111 C. Boucek, above note 9, pp. 22–23.

112 Ibid.

113 Matthew Levitt et al., “The Future of Regional Cooperation in the War on Terror”, Washington Institute for Near East Policy, PolicyWatch 3019, 19 September 2018, available at: www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/future-regional-cooperation-war-terror.

114 Ibid.

115 Thomas Warrick and Joze Paleyo, Improving Counterterrorism and Law Enforcement Cooperation between the United States and the Arab Gulf States, Atlantic Council. Scowcroft Middle East Security Initiative, 2020, p. 1, available at: www.atlanticcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/CTLE-Task-Force-Report-2020-FINAL.pdf.

116 Ibid.

117 Ibid.

118 Ibid., p. 26.

119 S. M. Torelli, above note 70, p. 13.

120 European Parliament, “Question for Written Answer E-003442-15”, 3 March 2015, available at: www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/E-8-2015-003442_EN.html.

121 European Council, “The EU's Response to Terrorism”, General Secretariat of the Council, available at: www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/fight-against-terrorism/.

122 S. M. Torelli, above note 70, p. 11.

123 Ibid., p. 27.

124 Ibid.

125 European Commission, Joint Proposal for a Council Decision, JOIN(2018) 9 Final 2018/0120(NLE), Brussels, 2019, available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52018JC0009&from=DE.

126 See, for example, C. Kaunert and S. Leonard, above note 51.

127 UN Office on Drugs and Crime, Supporting Legal Responses and Criminal Justice Capacity to Prevent and Counter Terrorism, Vienna, 2018, available at: www.unodc.org/documents/terrorism/Menu%20of%20Services/18-05646_Terrorism_Prev_Branch_Services_Ebook_NEW.pdf.

128 Khalid, Kal Ben, “Evolving Approaches in Algerian Security Cooperation”, CTC Sentinel, Vol. 8, No. 6, 2015Google Scholar, available at: https://ctc.usma.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/CTCSentinel-Vol8Issue69.pdf.

129 See ibid.; US Department of State, above note 101.

130 US Department of State, above note 86.