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⁸¹ Golovanova, “Sostav”, p. 87.

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⁸⁹ The argument of this article is not that such tensions were abnormally acute within the Bolshevik party. Indeed the evidence for 1917 suggests that they may have been more muted than in society at large. The memoir sources on which I rely differ in their estimation of the seriousness of this tension. Lydia Dan, for instance, states: “I never found the workers unfavorable to the intelligentsia. Of course, there were individual cases, but I deny categorically that it was widespread.” Haimson, Three Revolutionaries, p. 81. See also R.E. Zelnik's thoughtful observations on the differences between Kanatchikov and Fisher in this respect, in Zelnik, Reginald E., “Russian Bebels: An Introduction to the Memoirs of the Russian Workers, Semen Kanatchikov and Matvei Fisher”, part 2, Russian Review, 4 (1976), p. 426Google Scholar.

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¹⁸³ Zhongguo gongchandang diyici daibiao dahui dang'an ziliao [Archival Materials on the First Congress of the CCP] (Beijing, 1982), p. 9. There is a slightly differently worded resolution in Dangshi ziliao, 1 (1980), p. 9.

¹⁸⁴ Wusa yundong shiliao [Historical Materials on the May Thirtieth Movement], 2 vols (Shanghai, 1986), 2, p. 685.

¹⁸⁵ Laodongjie, 24, 23 January 1921.

¹⁸⁶ Ibid., 21, 2 January 1921.

¹⁸⁷ Zhongguo gongchandang diyici dahui, p. 37.

¹⁸⁸ Zhongguo gongchandang Shanghai shi zuzhi shi ziliao, 1920.8–1987.10 [Historical Materials on the Organizations of the CCP in Shanghai, 1920–87] (Shanghai, 1991), p. 4.

¹⁸⁹ Zhirong, Huang, “Guanyu yijiuersan nian zhi yijiuerqi nian Shanghai daxue dangzuzhi de fazhan qingkuang” [Concerning the conditions of development of party organization at Shanghai University in the years 1923 to 1927], Dangshi ziliao, 2 (11) (1982), pp. 98–99Google Scholar.

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¹⁹¹ North, Robert C., Kuomintang and Chinese Communist Elites (Stanford, 1952), pp. 46, 51 and 63Google Scholar.

¹⁹² Shanghai shangwu yinshuguan zhigong yundongshi [The History of the Labour Move-ment at the Shanghai Commercial Press] (Beijing, 1991), pp. 143 and 153–154.

¹⁹³ Yihang, Shen, Peinan, Jiang and Qingsheng, Zheng, Shanghai gongren ynndong shi [A History of the Shanghai Labour Movement], 2 vols (Liaoning, 1991), 1, pp. 172–173Google Scholar.

¹⁹⁴ Harrison, J.P., The Long March to Power: A History of the Chinese Communist Party, 1921–72 (London, 1972), pp. 64–65Google Scholar; Wilbur, C. Martin and How, Julie Lien-ying, Mission-aries of Revolution: Soviet Advisers and Nationalist China, 1920–1927 (Cambridge, MA, 1989), pp. 531–532CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹⁹⁶ Ibid., p. 31.

¹⁹⁷ Jianshu, Ren, “Chen Duxiu yu Shanghai gongren sanci wuzhuang qiyi” [Chen Duxiu and the Three Workers' Armed Uprisings in Shanghai], Dangshi ziliao, 4 (13) (1982), p. 76Google Scholar; Shanghai gongren sanci wuzhuang qiyi [The Three Workers' Armed Uprisings in Shanghai] (Shanghai, 1983), p. 451.

¹⁹⁸ Perry, Shanghai on Strike, p. 87.

¹⁹⁹ Shanghai fangzhi gongren yundong shi [The History of the Labour Movement among Shanghai Textileworkers] (Beijing, 1991), p. 474; “Zhonggong Shanghai quwei youguan Shanghai gongren sanci wuzhuang qiyi de wenxian qi pian” [Seven Documents from the Shanghai regional committee of the CCP concerning the three workers' armed uprisings], Dang'an yu lishi [Archives and History], 1 (1987), p. 2.

²⁰⁰ Harrison, , Long March, p. 92, citing Zhongguo Gongchandang zlti Toitshi (Taibei, 1962), pp. 80–82Google Scholar.

²⁰¹ Shanghai gongren sanci wuzliuang qiyi, pp. 112–113 and 148. The list for 1926 is in Jianying, Wang (ed.), Zhongguo gongchandang zuzltishi ziliao huibian [Edited Materials on the Organizational History of the CCP] (Beijing, 1982), pp. 39–40Google Scholar.

²⁰² Zulin, Huang, Liu Shaoqi qingshao nian shidai [Chronicle of Liu Shaoqi's Youth] (Beijing, 1991), p. 141Google Scholar.

²⁰³ Haojiong, Xu, “Liu Hua”, Zhongguo gongren yundong de xianfeng [Pioneers of the Chinese Labour Movement], 1 (Beijing, 1983), pp. 71–100Google Scholar.

²⁰⁴ Bing, Shi, “Deng Zhongxia”, Zhongguo gongren yundong de xianfeng, 2 (Beijing, 1983), p. 58Google Scholar.

²⁰⁵ Wusa yundong shitiao, 2, pp. 8–11.

²⁰⁶ Shanghai fangzhi gongren, pp. 575–576.

²⁰⁷ Honig, Emily. “Native-Place Hierarchy and Labor Market Segmentation: The Case of Subet People in Shanghai”, in Rawski, Thomas G. and Li, Lillian M. (eds), Chinese History in Economic Perspective (Berkeley, 1992), pp. 271–294Google Scholar.

²⁰⁸ “Shanghai lieshi xiaozhuan [Brief Biographies of Shanghai Martyrs] (Shanghai, 1983), pp. 15–16.

²⁰⁹ Shanghai fangzhi gongren, pp. 570–573.

²¹⁰ “Li Zhong xiaozhuan” [Short Biography of Li Zhong]. in Shanghai jiqi ye gongren yundong shi [A History of the Labour Movement in the Shanghai Machine Trades] (Beijing, 1991). pp. 332–335.

²¹¹ Shanghai jiqi ye gongren yundong shi pp. 322–326.

²¹² Harrison, Long March, p. 99.

²¹³ Zhongguo gongchandang di erci dao di liuci quanguo daibiao dahui wenjian huibian [Compilation of Documents on the Second to the Sixth National Congresses of the CCP] (Beijing, 1981), p. 115; Dangshi yanjiu, 2 (1983), p. 40.

²¹⁴ Gilmartin, Christina, “Gender in the Formation of a Communist Body Politic”, Modern China, 19/3 (1993), p. 316Google Scholar.

²¹⁵ Shen Yihang, Shanghai gongren yundong, p. 283.

²¹⁶ Shanghai fangzhi gongren, p. 577. See also Smith, Steve, “Class and Gender: Women's Strikes in St Petersburg, 1895–1917 and in Shanghai, 1895–1927”, Social History, 19/2 (1994), pp. 162–167Google Scholar.

²¹⁷ Wilbur, C. Martin, “The Influence of the Past: How the Early Years Helped to Shape the Future of the Chinese Communist Party”, in Lewis, J. W. (ed.). Party Leadership and Revolutionary Power in China (Cambridge, 1970), p. 60Google Scholar.

²¹⁸ Juewu [Awakening], 1 (1920). Cited in Leung, “Work-Study”, p. 176.

²¹⁹ Baofang, Xu and Xingying, Bian (eds), Shanghai gongren sanci wuzhuang qiyi yanjiu [Research Materials on the Three Workers' Armed Uprisings in Shanghai] (Shanghai, 1987), p. 368Google Scholar.

²²⁰ Wilbur, Missionaries, pp. 527–528.

²²¹ Wusa yundong [The May Thirtieth Movement], 3 vols (Shanghai, 1991), 1, p. 7.

²²² Pickowicz, Marxist Literary Thought, p. 46.

²²³ Wilbur, Missionaries, p. 527.

²²⁴ Rankin, Early Chinese Revolutionaries, pp. 40–46.

²²⁵ Quoted in Harrison, Long March, P 40.

²²⁶ Wilbur, Missionaries, p. 528.

²²⁷ Ibid., p. 462.

²²⁸ Wiisa yundong, 1, p. 7.

²²⁹ Tun, Mao, Midnight (Beijing, 1957), p. 381Google Scholar.

²³⁰ Pickowicz, Marxist Literary Tftought, p. 99.

²³¹ Meikun, Xu, “Jiang-Zhe quwei chcngli qianhou de pianduan huiyi” [Fragmentary Recollections from around the Time of the Foundation of the Jiangsu-Zhcjiang Regional Committee], Dangshi ziliao, 2 (7) (1981), p. 27Google Scholar.

²³² Shen Yihang, Shanghai gongren yundong, frontispiece.

²³³ Chinese Economic Journal, 9/4 (1931), p. 1075.

²³⁴ Shanghai fangzhi gongren, p. 90.

²³⁵ Wusa yundong shiliao, 1, p. 577.

²³⁶ Ibid., p. 289.

²³⁷ Guanzhi, Liu, “Guanyu 1924–1925 nian Shanghai gongren yundong de hutyi” [Recollections of the Shanghai Labour Movement in 1924–25], Zhongguo gongren yundong shiliao [Historical Materials on the Chinese Labour Movement], 1 (1960), p. 37Google Scholar.

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²³⁹ Zhongxia, Deng, Zhongguo zhigong yundong jianshi [A Short History of the Chinese Labour Movement] (Beijing, 1957), p. 119Google Scholar.

²⁴⁰ Chaojun, Ma, Zhongguo laodong wenti [Problems of Chinese Labour] (Shanghai, 1925), p. 6Google Scholar.

²⁴¹ Guowen zhoubao [National Literary Weekly], 3/28, 25 July 1926, p. 9.

²⁴² Xiandai shiliao [Historical Materials on the Contemporary Era], 1 (Shanghai, 1934), pp. 226–227; Ling, Ding, “Qu Qiubai”, Yi Qiubai [Recollections of Qiubai] (Beijing, 1981), pp. 134–140Google Scholar; Gilmartin, “Gender”, p. 316.

²⁴³ Ibid., p. 310.

²⁴⁴ Ven, Hans J. Van de, From Friend to Comrade: The Founding of the Chinese Communist Party, 1920–1927 (Berkeley, 1991), p. 55Google Scholar.

²⁴⁵ Zhonggong gongshi renwu zhuan, 9, pp. 164 and 171; Perry, Shanghai on Strike, p. 73.

²⁴⁶ Wusa yundong shiliao, 1, p. 575.

²⁴⁷ Dangdai shichttan [An Abbreviated History of the Contemporary Era] (Shanghai, 1933), p. 272.

²⁴⁸ “Erda” he “Sanda”: Zhongguo gongchandang dier-san daibiao dahui ziliao xuanbian [Selected Materials on the Second and Third Congresses of the CCP] (Beijing, 1985), p. 171.

²⁴⁹ Wilbur, Missionaries, p. 733.

²⁵⁰ Harrison, Long March, p. 99.

²⁵¹ Mao Tun, Midnight, p. 425.

²⁵² Gang, Hua, Yijiuerwu nian zhi yijiuerqi nian de Zhongguo da geming shi [A History of the Chinese Revolution, 1925–27] (Shanghai, 1931), p. 525Google Scholar.

²⁵³ These ideas were set out in the essay, “The Evolution of Social Democracy” (1898), which became the basis of the book, The Intellectual Worker in 1904. See Volskii, V. (Machajski), Umstvennyi Rabochii (Geneva, 1905)Google Scholar; Machajski, J. W., Le Socialisme des intellectuels, ed. and trans. Skirda, A. (Paris, 1979)Google Scholar.

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²⁵⁴ Wusa yundong shiliao, 1, p. 275.

²⁵⁶ During the Cultural Revolution traditional forms of entertainment came under fire in the campaign against the “four olds”.

²⁵⁷ Wasserstrom, Student Protest, p. 124.

²⁵⁸ For the relative restraint of the early Soviet period, see Koenker, Diane P. et al. (eds). Party, State and Society in the Russian Civil War (Bloomington, 1989)Google Scholar, section 4.

²⁵⁹ Fitzpatrick, Sheila, Education and Social Mobility in the Soviet Union, 1921–1934 (Cambridge, 1979)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, chs 9 and 11.

²⁶⁰ Read, Christopher, Culture and Power in Revolutionary Russia (London. 1990). p. 233CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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²⁶² Grieder, Intellectuals, p. 339.

²⁶³ Spence, Jonathan D., The Search for Modern China (New York, 1990), p. 572Google Scholar.

²⁶⁴ Tu Wei-ming, “Intellectual Effervescence”, p. 266.

²⁶⁵ Schwartz, “The Intelligentsia in Communist China”, p. 171.

²⁶⁶ Even Merle Goldman, while emphasizing that only a minority of intellectuals ever felt a sense of responsibility to address political issues, tends t o play down the extent of repression, emphasizing rather the ways in which liberal and radical elements of the intelligentsia allied with different factions in the party, thus bringing nemesis upon themselves. Goldman, Merle, China's Intellectuals: Advise and Dissent (Cambridge, MA, 1981)Google Scholar.

²⁶⁷ Tu Wei-ming, “Intellectual Effervescence”, p. 260; Gungwu, Wang, “To Reform a Revolution: Under the Righteous Mandate”, Daedalus, 122/2 (1993), p. 85Google Scholar.