¹ DuBois, W.E.B., The Souls of Black Folk (New York, 1961), p. 23 (first edition: New York, 1903).Google Scholar

² Two recent studies hold out promise: Arnesen, Eric, Waterfront Workers of New Orleans: Race, Class and Politics (New York, 1990),Google Scholar and William Trotter, Joe Jr, Coal, Class, and Color: Blacks in Southern West Virginia, 1915–1932 (Urbana, 1990).Google Scholar

³ Roediger, David, ““Labor in White Skin': Race and Working-class History”, in Mike, Davis and Sprinker, Michael (eds), Reshaping the US Left (London, 1987), pp. 288–289.Google Scholar

⁴ See, for example, Dickerson, Dennis, Out of the Crucible: Black Steelworkers in Western Pennsylvania, 1875–1980 (Albany, 1986).Google Scholar

⁵ John, W. Cell, The Highest Stage of White Supremacy: The Origins of Segregation in South Africa and the American South (New York, 1982), p. 17.Google Scholar

⁶ See, for example, Hill, Herbert, “Race, Ethnicity and Organized Labor: The Opposition to Affirmative Action”, New Politics, 1 ]new series] (Winter 1987), 2, pp. 31–32.Google Scholar

⁷ Cell, , Highest Stage, p. 16;Google Scholar see also Barbara, J. Fields, “Ideology and Race in American History”, in Kousser, J.M. and McPherson, James (eds), Region, Race and Reconstruction: Essays in Honor of C. Vann Woodward (New York, 1982), pp. 143–178.Google Scholar

⁸ The studies contributing to this model are too numerous to cite individually. The most important are Baron, Harold, “Racial Discrimination in Advanced Capitalism: A Theory of Nationalism and Division in the Labor Market”, in Edwards, Michael et al. (eds), Labor Market Segmentation (Lexington, 1973), pp. 202–231;Google Scholar and Bonacich, Edna, “A Theory of Ethnic Antagonism: The Split Labor Market”, American Sociological Review, 37 (10 1972), pp. 547–559.Google Scholar

⁹ For development of this critique see Saxton, Alexander, The Rise and Fall of the White Republic: Class Politics and Mass Culture in Nineteenth-Century America (London, 1990), pp. 6–8.Google Scholar

¹⁰ A full history of packinghouse unionism in Chicago focusing upon race is provided in Eric, Brian Halpem, “Black and White Unite and Fight': Race and Labor Meatpacking,1904–1948” (Ph.D., University of Pennsylvania, 1989);Google Scholar for a complementary study of other major meatpacking centers see Horowitz, Roger, “The Path Not Taken: A Social History of Industrial Unionism in Meatpacking” (Ph.D., University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1990).Google Scholar

¹¹ Historical Statistics of the United States (Washington DC, 1975), p. 119.Google Scholar

¹² James, R. Barrett, “Work and Community in ‘The Jungle’: Chicago's Packinghouse Workers, 1894–1922” (Ph.D. University of Pittsburgh, 1981), p. 298.Google Scholar

¹³ That year American meatpackers exported 30 million tons of canned beef, 31 million tons of fresh beef, and 183 million tons of bacon to the Allies and neutrals abroad; “Meat for the Multitudes” (special issue of the National Provisioner (4 07 1981) vol. 1, pp. 138, 147.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Spear, Allan, Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto Chicago, 1967), pp. 132, 140;Google ScholarJames, R. Grossman, “A Dream Deferred: Black Migration to Chicago,1916–1921” (Ph.D., University of California, Berkeley, 1982), p. 5.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Grossman, , “Dream Deferred”, p. 24;Google ScholarChicago Commission on Race Relations, The Negro in Chicago Chicago, 1921), pp. 59–61.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Emmett, J. Scott, “Letters of Negro Migrants of 1916–1918”, Journal of Negro History, 4 (10 1919), pp. 464, 457,Google Scholar both quoted in Spear, , Black Chicago, p. 133.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Quoted in Grossman, , “Dream Deferred”, p. 6.Google Scholar

¹⁸ On the “breathtaking” contrast between northern and southern wages see Montgomery, David, The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, The State, and American Labor Activism (New York, 1987), pp. 383–384; Testimony of Joe Hodges, in Hearings of Judge Samuel Alschuler, 20–23 June 1919, in Records of the Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service, National Archives Record Center, Suitland Maryland (RG 280), 33\864 (hereafter cited as Alschuler Hearings).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁹ “Meat for the Multitudes”, pp. 138, 147; Philip, Foner and Schultz, Reinhard, Das Andere Amerika: Geschichte, Kunst, und Kultur der Amerikanischen Arbeiterbewegung (Berlin, 1983), p. 224. James Barrett reports that the four largest packers, which had shown an aggregate profit of 19 million dollars for 1912–1914, registered 46 million dollars for 1916 and 68 million dollars for the following year;Google ScholarJames, R. Barrett, Work and Community in the Jungle: Chicago's Packinghouse Workers, 1894–1922 (Urbana, 1987), p. 189.Google Scholar

²⁰ In 1914, thirty-seven establishments utilized 26,408 workers. In 1919, before demobilization had taken its toll, 45,695 packinghouse workers earned a living in Chicago's forty-six plants; Herbst, Alma, The Negro in the Slaughtering and Meat-Packing Industry (New York, 1932), p. 151.Google Scholar

²¹ Sterling, Spero and Harris, Abram, The Black Worker: The Negro and the Labor Movement (Port Washington, 1966) (first edition, 1931), p. 151.Google ScholarHaynes, George, The Negro at Work During the World War and Reconstruction (Washington DC, 1921). pp. 52–56.Google ScholarFogel, Walter, The Negro in the Meat Industry (Philadelphia, 1970), p. 29.Google Scholar

²² “In the Stockyards District 1917”, McDowell, Mary Papers, Folder 15, Chicago Historical Society, Chicago IL;Google ScholarBrody, David, The Butcher Workmen: A Study of Unionization (Cambridge, MA, 1964), p. 73.Google Scholar

²³ Kampfert, Arthur, “History of Meatpacking, Slaughtering, and Unionism”, II, pp. 97–100, unpublished manuscript (c. 1949), State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison, WI.Google Scholar

²⁴ Brody, , Butcher Workmen, p. 73; National Provisioner, 14 10 1917, quoted in Brody.Google Scholar

²⁵ William, Z. Foster, American Trade Unionism: Principles and Organization, Strategy and Tactics (New York, 1947), p. 22;Google ScholarJohanningsmeier, Edward, “William Z Foster: Labor Organizer and Communist” (Ph.D., University of Pennsylvania, 1988),Google Scholar chapter 5. See also William, Z. Foster, “How Life Has Been Brought into the Stockyards”, Life and Labor, 7 (04 1918), p. 64.Google Scholar

²⁶ Johanningsmeier, “William Z. Foster”, chapter 5.

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²⁸ Montgomery, , Fall of the House of Labor, p. 269;Google ScholarBarrett, , Work and Community, pp. 191–192;Google ScholarJohanningsmeier, , “William Z. Foster”, chapter 5; Foster, American Trade Unionism, pp. 20–21.Google Scholar For the career and trade-union philosophy of Fitzpatrick see Keiser, John, “John Fitzpatrick and Progressive Unionism” (Ph.D., Northwestern University, 1965).Google Scholar

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³⁰ Barrett, , Work and Community, p. 195;Google ScholarBrody, , Butcher Workmen, pp. 76–78; Foster, American Trade Unionism, p. 25.Google Scholar

³¹ Herbst, , Negro, p. 29.Google Scholar

³² Constitutions quoted in Hill, Herbert, “Race and Ethnicity in Organized Labor: The Historical Sources of Resistance to Affirmative Action”, Journal of Intergroup Relations, 12 (Winter 1984), p. 22.Google ScholarHerbst, , Negro, p. 31;Google ScholarWilliam, M. Tuttle Jr, Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919 (New York, 1970), p. 125.Google Scholar

³³ Herbst, , Negro, p. 32;Google ScholarBarrett, , Work and Community, p. 194Google Scholar; Foster, , American Trade Unionism, pp. 22–23;Google Scholar see also Foster's, The Great Steel Strike (New York, 1920), p. 211.Google Scholar

³⁴ Herbst, , Negro, pp. 32–33.Google Scholar

³⁵ Browder, Earl, “Some Experiences Organizing Negro Workers”, The Communist, 9 (1930), pp. 35–41.Google Scholar Foote is identified in Sandburg, Carl, The Chicago Race Riot: 07 1919 (New York, 1919), p. 54.Google Scholar For the response of northern blacks see Grossman, , “A Dream Deferred”, p. 306;Google Scholar and Edna, Louise Clark, “A History of the Controversy Between Labor and Capital in the Slaughtering and Meat Packing Industries in Chicago” (MA Thesis, University of Chicago, 1922), p. 106.Google Scholar Fitzpatrick quoted in Herbst, , Negro, pp. 36–37.Google Scholar

³⁶ Goins quoted in Tuttle, , Race Riot, p. 127;Google ScholarMcDowell, quoted in Spero and Harris, , The Black Worker, p. 130.Google Scholar

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³⁹ Grossman, , “A Dream Deferred”, pp. 345–346, 351–352;Google ScholarChicago Defender, 6 07 1918,Google Scholar quoted in Tuttle, , Race Riot, p. 153;Google ScholarBarrett, , Work and Community, p. 205.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Tuttle, , Race Riot, pp. 128–129, fn. 39.Google Scholar

⁴¹ The Swift correspondence first was cited in Clark, “A History”, p. 102, and is quoted at length in Herbst, , Negro, pp. 33–44;Google Scholar Interview with Kamarczyk, Gertie, 5 12 1987, in possession of the author.Google Scholar See also, Tuttle, , Race Riot, p. 129;Google Scholar and Kampfert, , “History”, II, pp. 105–106.Google Scholar

⁴² Foster, , American Trade Unionism, p. 26;Google ScholarBrody, , Butcher Workmen, pp. 78–79; Johanningsmeier, “William Z. Foster”, chapter 5.Google Scholar

⁴³ Lane, Dennis, “A Brief History of Organization in Chicago Stock Yards”, Butcher Workman (11 1919), p. 1;Google ScholarWilliam, Z. Foster, From Bryan to Stalin (New York, 1936), pp. 90–93;Google Scholar see also Foster, , American Trade Unionism, pp. 25–27.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Brody, , Butcher Workmen, pp. 79–80.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Foster, , From Bryan to Stalin, p. 97.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Foster, , “How Life”, p. 68;Google ScholarBrody, , Butcher Workmen, pp. 81–82;Google ScholarBarrett, , Work and Community, pp. 198–200.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Kampfert, , “History”, II, p. 132;Google ScholarBarrett, , Work and Community, p. 200.Google ScholarBureau of Labor Statistics, Monthly Review, 6 (05 1918), pp. 115–127.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ McDowell, Mary, “Easter Day After the Decision”,Survey, XL (13 04 1918), p. 38.Google Scholar Fitzpatrick quoted in Tuttle, , Race Riot, pp. 126–127;Google ScholarBarrett, , Work and Community, p. 200.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Glatt quoted in Tuttle, , Race Riot, p. 127;Google ScholarBrody, , Butcher Workmen, p. 83;Google ScholarFoster quoted in Johanningsmeier, , “William Z. Foster”, chapter 5.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Herbst, , Negro, pp. 39–40;Google ScholarBrody, , Butcher Workmen, p. 84Google ScholarBarrett, , Work and Community, p. 200. “Arbitration of Demands of Employees Filed with the Administrator November 12, 1918”, Papers of the United Packinghouse Workers of America, Box 1, Folder 3, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison, WI.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Chicago Commission on Race Relations, Negro in Chicago, pp. 428–429;Google ScholarSpero, and Harris, , Black Worker, p. 274;Google ScholarBarrett, , Work and Community, p. 205.Google Scholar For interracial activity see Sandburg, , Chicago Race Riots, p. 55;Google Scholar and Browder, , “Some Experiences”, p. 35, passim.Google Scholar

⁵² Barrett, , Work and Community, p. 209;Google ScholarGrossman, , “Dream Deferred”, p. 321.Google Scholar

⁵³ Testimony of Robert Bedford, Frank Custer, Walter Gorniak, Alschuler Hearings; Gomiak quoted, p. 525.

⁵⁴ Testimony of Robert Bedford and Gus Grabe, Alschuler Hearings; Bedford quoted, p. 221.

⁵⁵ For a theoretical discussion of the intermingling of racial and class consciousness, see Joe, William Trotter Jr, Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariat,1915–1945 (Urbana, 1984), pp. 276–277.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Trotter, , Black Milwaukee, p. 277;Google ScholarRoediger, Dave, “Movin' On Up to the Midwest's Promised Land”, In These Times, 9–15 05 1990, p. 18.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ In the summer of 1919 the League took over the operation of the US Employment Service's Black Belt office – in itself a measure of the League's importance to both the black community and Chicago's industries. Strickland, Arvah, History of the Chicago Urban League (Urbana, 1966);Google ScholarTuttle, , Race Riot, p. 99; Grossman, , “Dream Deferred”, pp. 245–246.Google Scholar

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⁵⁹ Grossman, , “Dream Deferred”, p. 360;Google ScholarTuttle, , Race Riot, p. 148;Google ScholarBarrett, , Work and Community, p. 212.Google ScholarEvans' attitude toward unionism is revealed in his article “The Negro in Chicago Industries”, Opportunity, 1 (02 1923), pp. 15–17.Google Scholar

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⁶¹ Grossman, , “Dream Deferred”, pp. 273, 335;Google ScholarTuttle, , Race Riot, p. 101;Google ScholarKate, J. Adams, Humanizing a Great Industry (Chicago, 1919), p. 21.Google Scholar

⁶² Barrett, , Work and Community, p. 213;Google ScholarGrossman, , “Dream Deferred”, p. 273, pp. 337–339;Google ScholarAdams, , Humanizing, p. 21;Google ScholarTestimony of Frank Custer and Johnstone, J.W., Hearings, Alschuler, pp. 267–269, 277, 508–509, 545.Google Scholar Evidence on training of butchers from Spero, and Harris, , Black Worker, p. 268.Google Scholar See also Arthur, George, “The Young Men's Christian Association Movement Among Negroes”, Opportunity, 1 (03 1923), pp. 16–18.Google Scholar

⁶³ Herbst, , Negro, p. 35;Google Scholar advertisement quoted in Chicago Commission on Race Relations, Negro in Chicago, p. 423;Google ScholarTuttle, , Race Riot, p. 152;Google Scholar handbill quoted in Spero, and Harris, , Black Worker, p. 272.Google Scholar

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⁶⁵ Forrester Washington to Fitzpatrick, John, 25 01 1919, Fitzpatrick Papers, Box 25, “Negroes” folder, Chicago Historical Society, Chicago, IL; testimony of Walter, Gomiak, Hearings, Alschuler, p. 512;Google ScholarTuttle, , Race Riot, pp. 23–30.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Herbst, , Negro, p. 41;Google ScholarBrody, , Butcher Workmen, pp. 89–90;Google ScholarBarrett, , Work and Community, p. 226;Google ScholarFoster, , American Trade Unionism, p. 30.Google Scholar

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⁷⁶ The phrase is borrowed from Czeslaw Milosz, quoted in Gitlin, Todd, The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage (New York. 1987). p. 3.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Detailed descriptions of the riot can be found in Tuttle, , Race Riot, pp. 4–10, 32–64; and Chicago Commission on Race Relations, Negro in Chicago, pp. 1–52.Google Scholar

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