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² The Clerks' Union was founded in 1919 on the basis of small local clerical unions already operating from 1913. It became part of the union structure of the Histadrut when the latter was established at the end of 1920. It was a Jewish organization based on clerks working at Zionist, labor and private capital institutions. Only a few of the clerks who worked in the bureaucracy of the British Mandatory Government were Histadrut members. They were represented either by the Union of Railways, Post and Telegraph Workers, or the Union of Government Clerks. The Union of State Employees was set up (despite opposition from the Histadrut Clerks' Union) in February 1948, in conjunction with the establishment of Israel. See Be-Mivchan Ha-Ma'aseh: Histadrut Ha-Pekidim, 1945–1948 [In Test of Practice. The Union of Clerks, 1945–1948] (Tel Aviv, 1949)Google Scholar; Rolbant, S., Ha-Mivnch Ha-Demographi, Ha-Kalkali Ve-Ha-Chevrati Shel Tsibur Ha-Pekidim Be-Israel [The Demographic, Economic and Social Structure of the Clerks in Israel] (Tel Aviv, 1961).Google Scholar

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⁴ See Maier, C. S., In Search of Stability: Explorations in Historical Political Economy (Cambridge, 1987).Google Scholar For productivism see also Rabinbach, A., The Human Motor: Energy, Fatigue and the Origins of Modernity (New York, 1990), pp. 272–273.Google Scholar

⁵ The idea for the article originated from Coakley, J. (ed.), The Social Origins of Nationalist Movements: The Contemporary West European Experience (London, 1992)Google Scholar; and Shenhav, Y., “Al Ha-Havnaya Ha-Chevralit Shel Pirion Ha-Avoda [On the Social Construction of Labor Productivity]”, Shenaton Mishpat Ha-Avoda (1992), pp. 195–212.Google Scholar

⁶ The article does not intend to deal with the maturation of the ideology of productivism in Israel during the 1950s, but only with a segment of its social history. Its wider dissemination requires further research. The article is based on primary archival material of the Clerks' Union and the Histadrut in the Archives of the Labor Movement in the Lavon Institute, Tel Aviv (hereafter LA). Most citations are from the periodical press of the organized clerks – Pinkas Le-Inianei Ha-Pekidim [A Booklet on Clerks' Issues], published 1930–1938 (hereafter Pinkos), and Shurot: Pinkas Le-Inianei Ha-Pekidim [Lines: A Booklet on Clerks' Issues], published from 1938 until today (hereafter Shurot).

⁷ The numbers exclude clerks' wives who worked at home and were members of the Histadrut. See Be-Mivchan Ha-Ma'aseh, pp. 13–16.Google Scholar Between 1922 and 1946 the share of clerks in the Jewish population increased from 2.3 per cent to 5.5 per cent. During the same period the share of the organized clerks in the total clerical sector increased from 42.9 per cent to 63.4 per cent. See Ha-Klalit, Ha-Histadrut, Sikumim, 13 and 18.Google Scholar See also Ofer, G., The Service Industries in a Developing Economy: The Case of Israel (New York, 1967)Google Scholar; Shapiro, Y., Ha-Deomkratia Be-Israel [Democracy in Israel] (Ramat-Gan, 1977).Google Scholar

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⁹ Yoman Mazkir Histadrut Ha-Pekidim [The Diary of the Secretary of the Clerks' Union (Akiva Globman)] (02–07 1931), LA/236–2–229Google Scholar; Shohami, Y., “Ba'aiat Ha-Pakid Ha-Ivri Ba'aretz [The Problem of the Jewish Clerk in Palestine]”, Ha-Poel Ha-Tsair, 27 03 1946, pp. 10–11Google Scholar; Carmi, Z., “Neged Rigshei Kipu'ach Ve-Haflaya [Against Feelings of Deprivation and Discrimination]”, Shurot, 208 (04–05 1959), p. 4.Google Scholar

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⁴¹ Karoz Le-She'elon Le-Pekidim, Shel Va'ad Agudat Ha-Ovdim Be-Misradim U-Be-Vatei Mischar Be-Cheifa [A Questionnaire for Clerks, Announced by the Committee of the Haifa Union of Clerical and Commercial Workers, 16 January 1925], LA/236–1–82. See also Zavol, , “She'elot Ha-Peula Ha-Tarbutit Bein Pekidei Ha-Mischar”, pp. 18–21Google Scholar; Katzenelson, , “Ovdei Ha-Mada Le-Sheurt Ha-Am”, p. 108Google Scholar; Dotan, Y.. “Ha-Katvanit U-Mechonat Ha-Ketiva [The Woman-Typist and the Typewriter]”, Shurot, 98 (01 1950). pp. 14–16Google Scholar; Dotan, Y., “Re'iat Cheshbon Be-Yameinu [Accounting Nowadays]”, Shurot, 99 (02 1950), pp. 10–11.Google Scholar

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⁵⁰ Dotan, , “Ha-Katvanit U-Mechonat Ha-Ketiva”, pp. 14–16.Google Scholar See also Chayut, , “Machalot Ha-Atsabim Be-Chayei Ha-Pakid”, pp. 22–23.Google Scholar

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⁵⁴ Weinryb, , “Me-Ba'aiot Ha-Pekidut Ha-Yehudit”, pp. 4–5.Google Scholar See also Devoskin, I., “Ha-Pakid Ve-Ha-Misrad [The Clerks and the Office]”, Shurot, 122 (02 1952), p. 10Google Scholar; Globerson, A., “Le-Ba'aiat Pirion Avoda Be-Pekidut [On the Problem of Labor Productivity in the Clerical Profession]”, Shurot, 123 (03 1952). pp. 6–7.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Maier, , In Search of Stability, chs 1 and 3Google Scholar; Nolan, , Visions of Modernity.Google Scholar For an earlier discussion sec Nadwomy, , Scientific Management and the Unions, ch. 9.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Kupferberg, , “Bilu'ach Ha-Pakid – Tsav Ha-Sha'a [Insuring the Clerk – the Need of the Hour]”Google Scholar, in Ha-Pekidim, Histadrut, Alon Ha-Va'ad Ha-Merkazi, 8 (07 1934), p. 3.Google Scholar See also Frenkel, , Idiolog'iot Te'us Be-Falestina-Ai, pp. 99–101.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Ha-Pekidim, Histadrut, Din Ve-Chesbon [Report of the Clerks' Union] (08 1929–11 1931)Google Scholar; Argov, A., “Al Chilufei Pekidim [On Exchanging Clerks]”, Pinkas, 2 (10 1935), pp. 23–25.Google Scholar See also the Clerks' Union correspondence with the Jewish Agency in Ha-Pekidim, Histadrut, Din Ve-Cheshbon La-Ve'ida Ha-Revi'it Shel Ha-Histadrut Ha-KlalitGoogle Scholar [Union of Clerks' Report to the Histadrut Fourth General Convention] (1933); Meltser, N., “Me-Saviv Le-Ba'aiat Ha-Ye'ul Ba-Pekidut [On the Problem of Making Clerical Work More Efficient]”, Shurot, 169 (01 1956), p. 6.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ Resolutions of the National Convention of the Clerks' Union, in Chaveret Le-Inianei Ha-Pekidim (1929), pp. 32–35.Google Scholar The largest collective agreements were signed between the Clerks' Union and the Jewish Agency for the years 1934–1937, for which see Ha-Pekidim, Histadrut, Alon Ha-Va'ad Ha-Merkazi, 7 (06 1934), pp. 4–5.Google Scholar Between the beginning of 1933 and summer 1934 at least ten complex collective agreements were finalized and others were under negotiation; see Ha-Pekidim, Histadrut, Alon Ha-Va'ad Ha-Merkazi, 8 (07 1934), p. 2.Google Scholar By April 1937 23 collective agreements were signed, 8 in public offices, 5 in banks, 5 in commercial companies, and 5 in local committees. See the chapter on collective agreements in Report of the Clerks' Union, Pinkas, 13–14 (05 1937), pp. 7–17.Google Scholar For later developments see Glazer, , “Ha-Ta'asia U-Pekide-ha”, pp. 2–3.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Gavrielli, , “Ha-Politika Ha-Ta'arifit shel Histadrut Ha-Pekidim”, p. 17.Google Scholar See also Cohen, T., “Heskemei Avoda Collectivi'im [Collective Agreements]”, Shurot, 117/118 (09–10 1951), pp. 16–17.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Achituv, , “Pekidei Ha-Ta'asia Ve-Hamedina Ha-Yehudit”, pp. 4–5.Google Scholar

⁶¹ Bendix, L., “Choze Ha-Avoda Ve-Erko La-Oved Ha-Ivri [The Labor Contract and its Value for the Jewish Laborer]”, Shurot, 3 (10 1938), p. 8.Google Scholar

⁶² Ben-Ze'ev, , “Pekidei Ha-Misradim U-Batei Ha-Mischar [Office Clerks and Commercial Establishments]”, Pinkas, 2 (09 1930), p. 34.Google Scholar

⁶³ D. Cohen, Secretary of Mo'etset Poalei Cheifa (Haifa Labor Council), to Histadrut Ha-Ovdim Be-Misradim [Union of Office Workers, namely the Clerks' Union], 4 January 1923, LA/236–1–79; Ha-Pekidim, Histadrut, Din Ve-Heshbon La-Ve'ida Ha-Artsit Shel Histadrut Ha-Pekidim Ha-Ovdim Be-Misradim U-Bevatei Mischar Beretz Israel [Report of the Clerks' Union to the National Convention of the Union], 9–12 March 1927 (Jerusalem, 1927)Google Scholar; Din Ve-Cheshbon La-Ve'ida Ha-Shlishit [Histadrut Report to its Third General Convention], 1927, pp. 48–59Google Scholar; Globmann, A., “Likrat Chukat Ha-Avoda [Towards Work Agreement]”, Pinkas, 2 (09 1930), pp. 3–5Google Scholar; Editorial, “Be-Ikvot Ha-Yamim [Following the Days]”, Shurot, 4 (12 1938), p. 1Google Scholar; Editorial, “Be-Ikvot Ha-Yamim [Following the Days]”, Shurot, 9/10 (12 1939), p. 1Google Scholar; Ha-Pekidim, Histadrut, Din Ve-Cheshbon La-Ve'ida Ha-Chamisihit [Clerks' Union Report to its Fifth National Convention], 1933–1941.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Ziedenbank, S., “Al Va'adot Ha-Yetsur [On the Production Councils]”, Hapoel Hatsair, 26 07 1945Google Scholar; Dochan, Y., “Va'adot Ha-Yetsur U-Perion Ha-Avoda [The Production Councils and Labor Productivity]”, Shurot, 95/9 (10–11 1949), pp. 12–14Google Scholar; Khushi, A., “Ha-Poel Ve-Ha-Meshek: Tots'ote-ha Shel Shitat Ha-Premi'ot [The Worker and the Economy: The Consequences of the Bonus System]”, Ha-Dor, 23 12 1949Google Scholar; Barash, Z., “Pekidei Ha-Ta'asia U-Moatsot Ha-Yetsur [Industrial Clerks and Productivity Councils]”, Shurot, 98 (01 1950), pp. 12–13Google Scholar; Heller, A., “Moatsot Yitsur Ba-Ta'asia U-Ba-Sherutim [Productivity Councils in Industry and Services”, Alei Sadan (10 1950), pp. 20–22Google Scholar; Mokasei, M.. “Moe'etset Avoda Be-Kupat Cholim [Work Council in the Histadrut Sick-Fund]”, Shurot, 122 (02 1952), p. 9Google Scholar; Ma'asim: Ha-Histadrut Be-Cheifa Ba-Shanim 1945–1953 [Deeds: The Histadrut In Haifa during 1945–1953] (Haifa, 1953); Heller, U., Moatsot Yitsur Ba-Ta'asia [Production Councils in Industry] (Tel Aviv, 1954)Google Scholar; Globerson, A. L., Hiva'atsut Meshutefet Ba-Ta'asia Ha-Israelit [Joint Consultation in Israeli Industry] (Tel Aviv, 1955).Google Scholar

⁶⁵ “Ha-Igud Ha-Miktsoi Ve-Ha-Medina”, an interview with Brantental, M., Ha-Dor, 2 09 1949Google Scholar; Tavor, M., “Le-Hagdil Ha-Tefuka, Le-Harim Perion Ha-Avoda, Le-Horid et Mechirei Ha-Totseret [To Raise Output, Increase Productivity and Decrease Output Prices]”, Ha-Dor, 4 09 1949Google Scholar; Levi, , “Ha-Pakid Ha-Meurgan Be-Medinat Israel”, pp. 4–5.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Ziedenbank, , “Al Va'adot Ha-Yetsur”.Google Scholar See also Becker, A., “Ha-Oved Im Korn Ha-Medina [The Worker at the Establishment of the State]” (1951)Google Scholar, in idem, Ha-Oved Be-Israel [The Worker in Israel] (Tel-Aviv, 1970), pp. 36–40.Google Scholar For British background from which some of these ideas were borrowed see Hintan, J., Shop Floor Citizens: Engineering Democracy in 1940s Britain (Aldershot, 1994).Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Barash, Z., “Chativat Pekidei Ha-Ta'asia U-Bea'iot-eha [The Section of Industrial Clerks and its Problems]”, Shurot, 123 (03 1952), p. 9.Google Scholar See also Mokasei, , “Moe'tset Avoda Be-Kupat Cholim”, p. 9Google Scholar; Streit, Y., “Mo'atsot Avoda Meshutafot Be-Pekidut [Joint Work Councils in Clerical Work]”, Shurot, 134 (02 1954), p. 7.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Becker, A., “Ba-Ma'aracha Ha-Kalkalit [In the Economic Battle]”, Hapoel Hatsair, 18 10 1949.Google Scholar Despite initial opposition of the industrialists, by January 1950 50 councils were established in industry: 28 in the private sector, 19 in the Histadrut enterprises and 3 in the public sector. They served 11,500 workers, 30 per cent in the private sector, 40 per cent in the Histadrut, and 30 per cent in the public sector. See “Moatsot Ha-Yetsur”, in Ha-Ha-Klalit, Histadrut, Be-Shnot Ha-Sheloshim: Sekirot Ve-Sikumim, 1921–1951 [In the Thirtieth Yean Surveys and Summaries] (Tel Aviv, 1951), pp. 324–326.Google Scholar For comparison see Shenhav, Y., Mechonat Ha-Irgun: Chakira Bikonit Be-Yesodot Torat Ha-Nihul [The Organization Machine: A Critical Inquiry into the Foundations of Management Theory] (Jerusalem and Tel Aviv, 1995), p. 198.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Editorial, “Vadot Ha-Yetsur Ve-Tsibur Ha-Pekidim [Production Committees and the Clerks' Community]”, Shurot, 93 (09 1949), pp. 10–11.Google Scholar See also Ha-Ve'ida Ha-Shevi'it Shel Ha-Histadrut [The Histadrut Seventh General Convention] (09 1949)Google Scholar; Dochan, , “Vadot Ha-Yetsur U-Perion Ha-Avoda”, pp. 12–14Google Scholar; Levi, , “Ha-Pakid Ha-Meurgan Be-Medinat Israel”, pp. 4–5Google Scholar; Ha-Kinus Ha-Artzi Shel Va'adei Poalim be-Mifalei Ha-Charoshet Ha-Histadruti'im [The National Convention of Workers' Committees in Histadrut Industrial Enterprises], 11–12 January 1946, Ba-Histadrut (04 1946)Google Scholar; , M. G., “Lama Ne'edar Mekomo Shel Ha-Pakid”, p. 17.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ For background see Horowitz and Lissak, The Origins of the Israeli Polity, ch. 9.

⁷¹ Lissak, M., “Strategies of Class Formation: The Case of the Labour Movement in the Jewish Community of Palestine: 1918–1948”Google Scholar, in Cohen, E., Lissak, M. and Almagor, U. (eds), Comparative Social Dynamics (London, 1985), pp. 245–261Google Scholar; De Vries, D., “Proletarianization and National Segregation: Haifa in the 1920s”, Middle Eastern Studies, 30, 4 (10 1994), pp. 860–882CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gelber, Y., “‘Ha-Yehudi He-Chadash’ Ve-Itsuvo Ba-Chevra Ha-Israelit [The ‘New Jew’ and Its Molding in Israeli Society]”, in Gutman, I. (ed.), Temurot Yesod Ba-Am Ha-Yehudi Be'Ikvot Ha-Sho'a [Major Changes Within the Jewish People in the Wake of the Holocaust] (Jerusalem, 1996), pp. 425–442.Google Scholar

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⁷³ Norman, Y., “Ha-Inlelligentsia Ha-Ovedet [The Labor Intelligentsia]”, Ha'Adama, 3 (1 Kislev 5680) [23 11 1919], pp. 327–333Google Scholar; Giladi, D., “Yozma Pratit, Hon Le'umi Ve-Gibush Politi Shel Ha-Yamin [Private Initiative, National Capital and the Political Integration of the Right]”, in Eisenstadt, S. N. et al. (eds), Ha-Mivneh Ha-Chevrati Shel Israel [Israel's Social Structure] (Jerusalem, 1969), pp. 86–98Google Scholar; Gomi, J., Achdut Ha-Avoda 1919–1930 [The Union of Labor] (Tel Aviv, 1973), ch. 3Google Scholar; Shapira, A.. “Demuto Shel ‘Ha-Yehudi He-Chadash’ Ba-Chevra Ha-Yeshuvit [The Image of the ‘New Jew’ in Jewish Society in Palestine]”Google Scholar, in Gutman, , Temurot Yesod Ba-Am Ha-Yehudi, pp. 411–423.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ Shalev, M., Labour and the Political Economy in Israel (Oxford, 1992)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, introduction. For comparison see Carew, , Labour Under the Marshall Plan, chs 9–12.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ Compare with a similar role related to teachers in Finer, R., Sochnim Shel Ha-Chinuch Ha-Tsioni [Agents of Zionist Education] (Tel Aviv, 1985).Google Scholar

⁷⁶ See Din Ve-Cheshbon Shel Va'ad Ha-SenifShel Histadrut Ha-Pekidim Be-Yenahala'im [Report of the Jerusalem Branch Committee of the Clerks' Union], 1943–1947 (Jerusalem, 1947)Google Scholar; Aktzin, B., Ikarei Ha-Minhal Ha-Tsiburi [Principles of Public Administration] (Jerusalem, 1952)Google Scholar; Din Ve-Cheshbon Shel Histadrut Ha-Pekidim La-Tekufa Yanuar 1950-Merz 1952 [Clerks' Union Report for the Period January 1950–March 1952] (Tel Aviv, 1952)Google Scholar; Tartakover, A., “Chevra, Medinah Ve-Chinuch Pekidim [Society, State and Clerks' Education]”, Ha-Minhal, 13 (Spring 1953), pp. 6–8Google Scholar; Uriel, G., Minhal Misradi [Office Administration] (Jerusalem, 1959)Google Scholar; Globerson, A., Nihul Chever Ovdim: Ikarim [Managing A Group of Workers: Principles] (Tel Aviv, 1959).Google Scholar See also Kunda, G., Engineering Culture: Control and Commitment in a High-Tech Corporation (Philadelphia, 1992), pp. 11–13. 160–162.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Compare with Carmi, S. and Rosenfeld, H., “The Rise of Militaristic Nationalism in Israel”, International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society, 3, 1 (Fall 1989), pp. 5–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar