¹ Since anarchists and Marxists both claimed “communism” for their own, I distinguish the two below by capitalizing Marxist/Bolshevik Communism.

² “Shishedi yiqu he dagang” (the Goals and Program of Truth Society), Banyue (Half Moon), 14 (15 02 1921)Google Scholar, in Mouchun, Ge et al. (eds), Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang ziliao xuan (Selections of Anarchist Thought) 2 vols (Beijing, 1984), II, pp. 527–530, p. 529.Google Scholar

³ xing, Xiao, “Zemmayang xuanchuan annaqi zhuyi” (How Should We Propagate Anarchism), Huzhu yuekan (Mutual Aid Monthly), 1 (15 03 1923)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 682–685, p. 683.Google Scholar

⁴ See the list in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 1061–1066.Google Scholar

⁵ Shixin, Liu, “Guanyu wuzhengfu zhuyi huodongdi diandi huiyi” (Remembering Bits and Pieces of Anarchist Activity)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 926–939, p. 937.Google Scholar

⁶ Ibid., p. 934. In an earlier work, I referred to Wu Zhihui as editor of this journal. Zheng Peigang, who was also involved with the journal, confirms Liu's recollection that Liang was the editor. See Peigang, Zheng, “Wuzhengfu zhuyi zai Zhongguodi ruogan shishi” (Some Facts on Anarchism in China), in Guangzhou wenshi ziliao (Historical and Literary Materials on Guangzhou), 1 (04 1962), pp. 171–208, p. 185.Google Scholar

⁷ Yibo, Huang, “Wuzhengfu zhuyizhe zai Guangzhou gao gonghui huodong huiyi” (Recollections of Anarchist Labor Activities in Guangzhou), in Guangzhou wenshi ziliao, 1 (04 1962), pp. 1–15, p. 3.Google Scholar

⁸ Zheng, , “Wuzhengfu zhuyi”, pp. 191–192.Google Scholar

⁹ Dirlik, Arif, Origins of Chinese Communism (New York, 1989), for a more detailed discussion of these activities.Google Scholar

¹⁰ “Lingshuang zhi mojun han” (A Letter from Lingshuang), Chunlei yuekan (Spring Thunder Monthly), 1 (10 10 1921), pp. 96–120, p. 105.Google Scholar Huang himself displayed a peculiar uncertainty toward Bolshevism at this time. In its 1 July 1922 issue, Xin qingnian (New Youth), by then a communist organ, published a letter from Huang to Chen where the former wrote: “Although I have been uncertain in the past, I have come to believe firmly that this method [i.e. the dictatorship of the proletariat] is the only possible method of social revolution at the present; henceforth, I will strive to achieve humanity under your leadership.” Until his open letter appeared in 1923, anarchists feared that they had lost one of their leaders to communism. Huang gradually dropped out of anarchist ranks after he went to the US.

¹¹ Shengbai, Ou, “Da Chen Duxiu jundi yiwen” (Answering Mr. Chen Duxiu's Doubts), Xuehui (Sea of Learning), 104–109 (02 1923)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 648–664, p. 664.Google Scholar

¹² “Benshe zhi gedi tongzhi han” (A Letter from This Society to Comrades Elsewhere), Chunlei yuekan, 1 (10 10 1923), pp. 92–95Google Scholar for this account. See also Zheng, , “Wuzhengfu zhuyi”, p. 201.Google Scholar

¹³ This could also be translated as Truth Society. I use Reality Society here to distinguish it from the other Truth Society (Shishe).

¹⁴ Zheng, , “Wuzhengfu zhuyi”, p. 202.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Xiushao, Bi, “Wo xinyang wuzhengfu zhuyidi qianqian houhou” (Account of My Anarchist Beliefs)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 1022–1938, p. 1025.Google Scholar

¹⁶ “Tongzhi xiaoxi” (News of Comrades), Jingzhe (Spring Festival; literally, “the awakening of insects”), 1 (1924).Google Scholar This journal was a continuation of Chunlei, after the latter was shut down. See also Zheng, , “Wuzhengfu zhuyi”, pp. 204–206.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Jun, Jiang, “Lu Jianbo xiansheng zaoniandi wuzhengfu zhuyi xuanchuan huodong jishi” (An Account of Mr. Lu Jianbo's Anarchst Activities in His Youth)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 1009–1022.Google Scholar “Fangwen Fan Tianjun xianshengdi jilu” (Account of a Visit with Mr. Fan Tianjun) in ibid., pp. 1039–1048; pp. 1041–1043 discusses some of the activities of this radical group.

¹⁸ Meijiu, Jing, “Zuian” (Account of Crimes), in Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (ed.), Xinhai geming ziliao leipian (Materials on the 1911 Revolution) (Beijing, 1981), pp. 54–157.Google Scholar

¹⁹ These activities may be gleaned from the “News of Comrades” sections published in anarchist journals. For a sample from People's Tocsin, see Chonghou, Zhao et al. (ed.), Wusi shiqidi shetuan (Societies of the May Fourth Period), 4 vols (Beijing, 1979), IV, pp. 275–280.Google Scholar

²⁰ For a discussion of these relationships in detail, see Dirlik, , Origins, chs 2 and 10.Google Scholar

²¹ Avrich, Paul, The Russian Anarchists (Princeton, 1978), pp. 39–40.Google Scholar

²² Huang, , “Letter”, pp. 110–111.Google Scholar

²³ Bi, , “Wo xinyang wuzhengfu zhuyi”, pp. 1025–1026.Google Scholar

²⁴ Baopu, Qin, “A Memoir of My Meeting Ms. Goldman in Russia in My Early Days” (Original Chinese)Google Scholar, Letter to Prof. Zhe, Lu (1987?).Google Scholar I am grateful to Falk, Candace (ed.), “The Emma Goldman Papers”Google Scholar, University of California-Berkeley, for sharing with me this letter, as well as other materials on Goldman's relationships with Chinese anarchists.

²⁵ For a more detailed discussion of these polemics, see Dirlik, , Origins, ch. 10.Google Scholar

²⁶ Huang, , “Letter”, p. 110.Google Scholar Bi also heard this in person from Mme. Kropotkin, , “Wo xinyang wuzhengfu zhuyi”, p. 1025.Google Scholar

²⁷ “Fandui anbu xishou xuanyan” (Declaration Opposing Anarchist-Bolshevik Cooperation), Xuehui, 109 (5 02 1923)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 665–666, p. 665.Google Scholar

²⁸ Ou, , “Da Chen Duxiu”, p. 658.Google Scholar

²⁹ Feigan, Li (Jin, Ba), “Zailun wuchan jieji zhuanzheng” (Another Discussion of the Dictatorship of the Proletariat), Xuedeng (Light of Learning), 17 (1925), p. 1.Google Scholar

³⁰ “Wuzhengfu gongchanpai yu jichan paizhi qidian” (Differences Between Anarcho-communists and Collectivists), Minsheng (People's Voice), 30 (03 1921)Google Scholar, in Ge et al., Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 565–566.Google Scholar

³¹ Huang, , “Letter”, p. 113.Google Scholar

³² “Iguo gongchan zhuyi shibaizhi yuanyin jiqi buqiudi fangfa” (The Failure of Communism in Russia and the Way to Salvage It), Gongyu (After Work) (09 1922)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 595–601, p. 598.Google Scholar

³³ Jianbo, , “Lun wuchan jieji zhuanzheng” (On the Dictatorship of the Proletariat), Xuedeng, 20–22 (1924). See no. 20, p. 1.Google Scholar

³⁴ Ibid., see also Li, “Zailun wuchan jieji”.

³⁵ Jianbo, , “Lun wuchan jieji zhuanzheng”; Baopu, “Makesi zhuyi piping” (Critique of Marxism), Xuedeng, 19 (1924).Google Scholar

³⁶ Ou, , “Da Chen Duxiu”, p. 663Google Scholar; Sanbo, , “Iguo gongchan zhuyi”, p. 599.Google Scholar

³⁷ Baopu, , “Xin jingji zhengce” (New Economic Policy), Xuedeng (01–02 1924)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 854–859.Google Scholar

³⁸ Huang, , “Letter”, p. 112Google Scholar; Sanbo, , “Iguo gongchan zhuyi”, pp. 596–597.Google Scholar

³⁹ The discussion below is based on a long essay by Zhi, Lu, “Makesi zhuyi piping”Google Scholar (Critique of Marxism) which was a combination restatement/translation of Cherkezov's work. Lu says in his postscript that the essay was first published in Minzhong. The version used here is from part 5 (“Makesi zhuyidi pochan” (Bankruptcy of Marxism)) of Ziyou congshu (Compendium on Freedom), pp. 151–228.Google Scholar This was a valuable collection of anarchist writings from the twenties (mostly translations) published in 1928 by the Equality Society (Pingshe) in San Francisco. The Compendium was first published in Shanghai by the Freedom Bookstore (Ziyou shudian) in 1927.

⁴⁰ Tianxin, (Zhongjiu, Shen), “Gao gongchandangdi qingnian” (To Communist Youth), Minzhong (People's Tocsin) 2.3 (25 03 1927), pp. 205–222.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Yibo, Mao, “Makesizhi ‘ziben jizhong’ di miushuo” (The Erroneousness of Marx's ‘Concentration of Capital’), Xuedeng (12 12 1925).Google Scholar

⁴² “‘Jieji zhanzheng’ he ‘pingmin zhuanzheng’ guoshi yongyu shehui geming ma?” (Are ‘Class War’ and ‘Dictatorship of the Common People’ of Use in Social Revolution?), Minsheng, 13 (07 1921)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 587–590, p. 590.Google Scholar A good discussion of the difficulties of class analysis was offered by Bibo, (Xiushao, Bi), “Jieji douzheng” (Class Struggle), Geming zhoubao (Revolution Weekly), 18 (1927), pp. 244–249.Google Scholar

⁴³ Ou, , “Da Chen Duxiu”, pp. 662–663. Other prominent proponents of class struggle were Liang Bingxian, and the Sichuan anarchists Lu Jianbo and Mao Yibo.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Lu, , “Makesi zhuyi piping”, pp. 194–203.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ “Fakan ci” (Opening Statement), Geming zhoubao, 1 (07 1927), pp. 3–17, p. 13.Google Scholar Shen was the editor and, according to Biu Xiushao, wrote this statement. He had earlier opposed alliance with the Guomindang.

⁴⁶ “Fangwen Fan Tianjun xianshengdi jilu” (Record of a Visit with Mr. Fan Tianjun), Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 1039–1048, p. 1043.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Feigan, (Ba Jin), “Aiguo zhuyi yu Zhongguoren dao xingfudi lu” (Patriotism and the Chinese Path to Happiness), Jingqun (Warning to the Masses), 1 (1 09 1921)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 541–543Google Scholar; (Wei), , Huilin, , “Shehui geming yu guomin geming” (Social Revolution and National Revolution), Minzhong, 2.1 (01 1927), pp. 11–21Google Scholar; Tianxin, (Zhongjiu, Shen), “Gao guojia zhuyizhe” (To Nationalists), Minzhong, 2.2 (02 1927), pp. 100–105.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ “Zhen Tian yu Faguo wuzhengfu zhuyizhe Gelafudi tongxin” (Zhen Tian [Bi Xiushao's] Correspondence with the French Anarchist Grave), Minzhong, 2.4–5 (05 1927)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 729–734.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Yibo, (Yibo, Mao), “Ping Chen Duxiu xianshengdi jiangyan lu” (Critique of Mr. Chen Duxiu's Collection of Speeches), Xuedeng, 20 (11 1924).Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Hudson Collection (The Hoover Institute), Package 6, part 2.

⁵¹ “Guangzhou zhenshe xuanyan” (The Declaration of Guangzhou Reality Society), Chunlei, 1 (10 10 1923), pp. 1–5, p. 4.Google Scholar

⁵² “Junshe xuanyan” (Declaration of Equality Society), Banyue, 21 (1 01 1921)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 534–537, p. 535.Google Scholar

⁵³ Bibo, (Xiushao, Bi), “Women shishei?” (Who Are We?), Geming zhoubao, 16–18 (1927). See 16, pp. 161–175, p. 172.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Zhihui, (Zhihui, Wu), “Jinian Shifu xiansheng” (Remembering Mr. Shifu), Minzhong, 2.3 (03 1927), pp. 161–163, p. 162.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Sanmu, (Shaoling, Li), “Wuzhengfu zhuyi yanjiu” (Examination of Anarchism), Chunlei, 2 (10 12 1923), pp. 3–4.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Baopu, , “Wuzhengfudang geming fanglue” (Strategy of Anarchist Revolution)Google Scholar, in Ziyou congshu, part 3 (“gemingzhi lu” (the Path of Revolution)), pp. 359–360.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ (Mao) Yibo, , “Geming zhongzhi zhishi jieji yu wuchan jieji” (Intellectual and Proletarian Classes in the Revolution), Minfeng (People's Vanguard), 2.1 (13 02 1927)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 795–797.Google Scholar Mao, with the Sichuan anarchists Lu Jianbo, his spouse Deng Tianyu, and Fan Tianjun from Guangzhou was among the leaders of the Young Anarchist Federation which represented the anarchist Left in the late twenties.

⁵⁸ Xintian, (Zhongjiu, Shen), “Duiyu kai dahuidi yijian” (Views on a National Congress), Ziyou ren (Free People), 3 (05 1924)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 758–761.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Shengbai, Ou, “Zhongguo muqiandi zhengzhi wenti ruhe jiejue”, Minzhong, 1.5 (10 07 1923)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 634–636, pp. 635–636.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ “‘Jieji zhanzheng’ he ‘pingmin zhuanzheng’”, p. 590.Google Scholar

⁶¹ “Wuzhengfu gongchandang Shanghaibu xuanyan”, Ziyou ren, 3 (05 1924)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 751–757, p. 753.Google Scholar

⁶² Shuji, Kosugi, “Shanghai koodan rengookai to Shanghai no roodoo undoo” (The Federation of Shanghai Syndicates and the Shanghai Labor Movement), Rekishigaku Kenkyu (Historical Studies), 392 (01 1973), pp. 14–73, pp. 18–19.Google Scholar

⁶³ For the Federation, see Chesneaux, Jean, The Chinese Labor Movement, 1919–1927 (Stanford, 1968), pp. 223–227, 252–259Google Scholar, as well as Kosugi. For the anarchist involvement, see below.

⁶⁴ Daneng, , ‘Xiangcun yundong tan’ (On the Agrarian Movement), Chunlei, 2 (10 12 1923), p. 2.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Jing, , “Zuian”, pp. 145, 147.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Nongcun yundong tongmeng guiyue caoan”, Xuehui, 236 (29 06 1923)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 673–674.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Huang, , “Letter”, p. 118Google Scholar; Jianhun, , “Bagong yu jugeng” (Strikes and Seizing Land), Minzhong, 1.5 (10 07 1923)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 632–633.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ “Shaanbei nongshe yundongdi xuanyan” (Declaration of the Village Commune Movement in Northern Shaanxi), Chunlei, 1 (10 10 1923), pp. 141–143, p. 142.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Sanmu, (Shaoling, Li), “Mintuan geming” (Revolution of People's Militia), Minzhong, 1.12 (07 1925)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 704–710, pp. 709–710.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ “Fangwen Fan Tianjun”, pp. 1040–1041, p. 1045.Google Scholar

⁷¹ Shixin, Liu, “Guanyu wuzhengfu zhuyi”, pp. 937 gives a brief account of these methods.Google Scholar

⁷² “Tongzhi xiaoxi”, Jingzhe, 1 (1924).Google Scholar

⁷³ Linyi, , “Sinian qian Zhongguodi Laodong daxue” (The Chinese Labor University of Four Years Ago), Geming zhoubao, 29–30 (12 1927). See no. 29, p. 286.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ Daneng, , “Xiangcun yundong tan”, pp. 4–5.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ “Shaanbei nongshe yundongdi xuanyan”, p. 142.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ (Liang) Bingxian, , “Gemingdi gongtuan” (Revolutionary Syndicates), Minzhong, 1.7 (10 03 1924)Google Scholar, in Ge, et al. , Wuzhengfu zhuyi sixiang, II, pp. 701–704.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ See the stages of revolution Shaoling, Li outlines in “Mintuan geming”, pp. 707–710.Google Scholar

⁷⁸ Tie, Zheng (Xiushao, Bi), “Zhong women zijidi yuandi” (Cultivating Our Own Garden), Minzhong, 2.2 (02 1927), pp. 81–83.Google Scholar

⁷⁹ Bi, , “Wo xinyang wuzhengfu zhuyi”, pp. 1030–1031.Google Scholar

⁸⁰ Yibo, Huang, “Wuzhengfu zhuyizhe zai Guangzhou”, pp. 5–14.Google Scholar

⁸¹ Si, (Siweng, Wang), “Hewei er xinyang wuzhengfu gongchan zhuyi” (What are Anarcho-communist Beliefs), Chunlei, 1 (10 10 1923), pp. 5–19.Google Scholar Needless to say those arguments also distinguished the anarchists from anti-political social conservatives, on the one hand, and individual-oriented libertarians, on the other hand.

⁸² Kropotkin, Peter, Revolutionary Pamphlets, Baldwin, Roger N. (ed.) (New York, 1968), pp. 114–115, p. 117.Google Scholar

⁸³ Zheng, , “Wuzhengfu zhuyi”, p. 199.Google Scholar