Published online by Cambridge University Press: 20 February 2009
The paper centers on the question of how widespread was the impact of the lively discussion of housing and household reform during the Weimar Republic. Therefore the focus is on the experiences of working-class women. Against the background of material conditions in proletarian households, it analyzes which norms and standards concretely shaped working women's everyday housework in the urban working-class milieu in the 1920s, and how these norms and standards arose. The paper demonstrates the substantial reservations and resistance with which even better-off working women approached all efforts at rationalizing their housework in the 1920s. They wanted better living conditions and new household appliances, but the vast majority could not afford both. The specific norms and standards against which a “good” housewife was measured, norms and standards which corresponded more to the “old” model of the “economical, clean and tidy” housewife, also blocked acceptance, however.
1 “Rationalisierung des Arbeiterhaushalts”, Hamburger Echo (hereafter HE), 76, 17 March 1929.
2 Cf. e.g. “Rationalisierter Einzelhaushalt oder GroBhaushalt”, Die Genossin (hereafter Ge.), 4 (April 1927), pp. 127ff.; “Neue Hauswirtschaft”, Gewerkschaftliche Frauenzeitung (hereafter GF), 5 (May 1929), p. 40.
3 For more detail, see Hagemann, Karen, Frauenalhag und MUnnerpolitik. Alltagsleben und gesellschaftliches Handeln von Arbeiterfrauen in der Weimarer Republik (Bonn, 1990), pp. 106–114Google Scholar. On the Social Democratic women's movement in the Weimar Republic more generally, seeibid., pp. 509–638; , Hagemann, ‘“Equal but not the same’: The Social Democratic Women's Movement in the Weimar Republic”, in Fletcher, Roger (ed.), Bernstein to Brandt: A Short History of German Social Democracy (London, 1987), pp. 133–143Google Scholar, and “Men's Demonstrations and Women's Protest: Gender in Collective Action in the Urban Working-Class Milieu during the Weimar Republic”, Gender and History, 5 (1993), pp. 101–119; and “La ‘question des femmes’ et les rapport masculinteminin dans la social-democratie allemande sous la Republique Weimar”, Le Mouvement Social 163 (April-June 1993), pp. 25–44; Pore, Renate, A Conflict of Interest: Women in German Social Democracy (Westport, 1981)Google Scholar; Thònnessen, Werner, The Emancipation of Women: Tlie Rise and Decline of the Women's Movement in German Social Democracy 1863–1933 (London, 1973)Google Scholar.
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5 The best-known American figures were Christine Frederick and Lilian M. Gilbreth, whose writings were widely read in Germany as well. See Frederick, Christine, Die rationelle Haushaltsftihrung: Betriebswissenschaftliche Studien (Berlin, 1921)Google Scholar;Gilbreth, Lilian M., Heim und Arbeit: Die Lebensaufgabe der modernen Hausfrau (Stuttgart, 1930)Google Scholar. For the USA, see:Bock, Gisela and Duden, Barbara, “Arbeit aus Liebe – Liebe als Arbeit: Zur Entstehung der Hausarbeit im Kapitalismus”, Frauen und Wissenschaft. Beitra'ge zur Berliner Sommeruniversitdt fur Frauen, Juli 1976 (Berlin, 1977), pp. 118–199Google Scholar; Cowan, Ruth Schwartz, More Work for Mothers: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York, 1983), pp. 151–192Google Scholar. A general overview of the American discourse about domesticity is given by Matthews, Glenna, Just a Housewife. The Rise and Fall of Domesticity in the United States (Oxford and New York, 1987)Google Scholar. For the development of household and family life and the importance of differences by class and race, see Mintz, Steven and Kellog, Susan, Domestic Revolutions: A Social History of American Family Life (New York, 1988)Google Scholar. For an overview of the international dimensions of the household rationalization movement, which, however, concentrates on house-hold technology, see Giedion, Sigfried, Mechanization Takes Command (New York, 1948)Google Scholar.
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7 The most famous German propagandists for household rationalization were the architect Bruno Taut, with his Die neue Wohnung (New Housing), first published in 1924, and the home economist Erna Meyer, whose book Der neue Haushalt (The New Household) was to become the most important work of the German rationalization movement, going through thirty-seven editions in the three years after its first appearance in 1926. See Meyer, Erna, Der neue Haushalt: Ein Wegweiser zur wirtschaftlichen Haushaltsftihrung (Stuttgart, 1926)Google Scholar; substantially augmented and revised edition (Stuttgart, 1929); Taut, Bruno, Die neue Wohnung: Die Frau als Schopferin (Leipzig, 1924)Google Scholar. On the objectives of the German movement for household rationalization, see the literature in notes 3 and 4; on the model of the housewife more generally, see Weismann, Anabella, Froh erftille Deine Pflicht: Die Entwicklung des Hausfrauenleitbildes im Spiegel trivaler Massenmedien in der Zeit zwischen Reichsgrtindung und Weltwirtschaftskrise (Berlin, 1988)Google Scholar.
8 Meyer, Erna (ed.). Neuzeitliche Hauswirtschaftslehre. Handbuch zum Attsbau des hauswirtschaftlichen Unterrichts (Stuttgart, 1928, 3rd ed.), p. 5Google Scholar.
9 SeeBaum, Marie, Familienfilrsorge (Karlsruhe, 1927)Google Scholar and “Die Familie in Sozial- und Fiirsorgepolitik der Gegenwart”, Soziale Praxis (hereafter SP), 27 (1932), cols 828ff.; Zahn, Friedrich, “Familienpolitik”, SP, 45 (1927), cols 1116ff.; Hagemann, Frauenalltag, pp. 99ffGoogle Scholar.
10 Kraus, Hertha, “Wohnungsnot und Wohnungsreform”, lecture given at the SPD National Women's Conference in Kiel, inSozialdemokratischer Parteitag 1927 in Kiel. Protokoll mit dem Bericht v. d. Frauenkonferenz, (Kiel, 1927; rpt Glashiitten i. Taunus, 1974), pp. 345–355Google Scholar; see also pp. 355–369. For a detailed account of the development of Social Democratic positions on housing and household reform since the turn of the century, and of the controversies involved, see Hagemann, Frauenalltag, esp. pp. 106–114. Until now the literature has not produced a thorough analysis. Mary Nolan's essay “Housework Made Easy” (see note 4) also pays only scant attention to the subject.
11 See, Nolan, “Housework” Heinz Hirdina, “Rationalisierte Hausarbeit: Die Kilche im Neuen Bauen”, Jahrbuch fiir Volkskunde und Kulturgeschichte, 26 (new series, vol. 11) (1988), pp. 44–80Google Scholar; Saldern, Adelheid v., “‘Statt Kathedralen die Wohnmaschine’: Paradoxien der Rationalisierung im Kontext der Moderne”, in Bajohr, Frank, Johe, Werner and Lohalm, Uwe (eds),Zivilisation und Barbarei (Hamburg, 1991), pp. 168–192Google Scholar; “Sozialdemokratie und kommunale Wohnungsbaupolitik in den 20er Jahren – am Beispiel von Hamburg und Wien”, Archiv filr Sozialgeschichte (hereafter AfS), 25 (1985), pp. 183–237, and “Neues Wohnen: WohnverhSItnisse und Wohnverhalten in Groβanlagen der der Jahre”, in Schildt, Axel and Sywottek, Arnold (eds),Massenwohnung und Eigenheim. Wohnungsbau und Wohnen in der Grofistadt seit dem Ersten Weltkrieg (Frankfurt a. Main and New York, 1988), pp. 201–221Google Scholar.
12 On the extensive literature, see notes 4–7.
13 See Hagemann, Frauenalltag, pp. 114–132 and 204–219.
14 I define as working women (Arbeiterfrauen) all women of the working class because of their fundamental dual responsibility for house and family on the one hand and paid labor on the other.
15 On the history of everyday housework, see also Martin Soder, Hausarbeit und Stammtischsozialismus: Arbeiterfamilie undAUtag im Deutschen Kaiserreich (Gieβen, 1980), pp. 31ff.; and, most recently, Kuhn, Barbel, Haus Frauen Arbeit 1915–1965: Erinnerungen aus filnfzig Jahren Haushaltsgeschichte (St Ingbert, 1994)Google Scholar. For revealing contemporary literature see Leichter, Kathe, So leben wir[…] 1320 Industriearbeiterinnen berichten über ihr Leben (Vienna, 1932)Google Scholar; Mem Arbeitstag – mein Wochenend: 150 Berichte von Textilarbeiterinnen, ed.Deutschen Textilarbeiterverband (Berlin, 1930) (reprint, ed. Alf Liidtke, Hamburg, 1991).
16 See Hagemann, Frauenalltag, pp. 13ff.
17 Ibid., pp. 109ff. and 594ff. In 1929, the women's organization of the Hamburg SPD even founded their own housewives’ organization, in cooperation with the local branch of the “Arbeiterwohlfahrt” and the local consumer cooperative. The “Hauswirtschaftlichen Vereinigung”, as it was called, was intended to represent the “interests of the housewives of the. working population”. This organization, the first of its kind in Germany, was devoted, among other things, to educating “proletarian housewives” about the possibilities for “rationalizing the individual household”. Seeibid., pp. 136ff.
18 Ibid., pp. 114–132 and 204–219; Hagemann, Karen and Kolossa, Jan, Gleiche RechteGleiche Pflichten? Der Frauenkampf fiir “staatsbilrgerliche” Gleichberechtigung, Hamburg: Ein Bilder-Lese-Buch zu Frauenalltag und Frauenbewegung in Hamburg (Hamburg, 1990), pp. 76–98Google Scholar.
19 Miriam A. Glucksmann, Elizabeth Roberts and Ellen Ross, who have studied, with different approaches and questions, the everyday work of British working-class mothers and housewives, also used autobiographical sources and oral history. See Glucksmann, Miriam A., “Some Do, Some Don't (But in Fact They All Do Really); Some Will, Some Won't; Some Have, Some Haven't: Women, Men, Work, and Washing Machines in Inter-War Britain”, Gender and History, 7 (08 1995), pp. 275–294CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Roberts, Elizabeth, A Woman's Place. An Oral History of Working-Class Women 1890–1940 (Oxford and New York, 1984)Google Scholar; Ross, Ellen, Love and Toil. Motherhood in Outcast London 1870–1918 (Oxford and New York, 1993)Google Scholar. For their analysis of housework in the British working-class milieu, see Roberts, A Woman's Place, pp. 125–168; Ross, Love and Toil, pp. 27–54. Ellen Ross's study, in particular, contains a large bibliography for a comparison of working-class living conditions and everyday housework, which could not be cited here, see pp. 234–243.
20 See Hagemann, Frauenalltag, and “Wir hatten mehr Notjahre als reichliche Jahre […]: Lebenshaltung und Hausarbeit Hamburger Arbeiterfamilien in der Weimarer Republik”, in Tenfelde, Klaus (ed.), Arbeiter im 20. Jahrhundert (Stuttgart, 1991), pp. 200–240Google Scholar, and “4Wir werden alt vom Arbeiten': Die soziale Situation alternder Arbeiterfrauen in der Weimarer Republik am Beispiel Hamburgs”, AfS, XXX (1990), pp. 247–296, and “Changer Chaque Jour de Travail: L'Emploi des Ouvrieres de Hambourg Dans les Anndes Vingt”, Bulletin Centre Pierre Lion d'histoire e”conomique et sociale, 2–3 (1994), pp. 23–35.
21 These women were chosen with the help of an extensive biographical questionnaire to cover the broadest possible range of life patterns and experience. I began with open biographical interviews. After analyzing the results, I conducted structured interviews with some of the women, and twenty-seven particularly rich interviews were transcribed as literally as possible into standard German. On methodological approaches and problems see Hagemann, Frauenalltag, pp. 20ff., and “ ”Ich glaub' nicht, daβ ich Wichtiges zu erzahlen hab” […]: Oral History und historische Frauenforschung”, in VorlSnder, Herwart (ed.). Oral History. Milndlich Geschichte. Acht BeitrSge (Gattingen, 1990), pp. 29–48Google Scholar; Gluck, Sherna Berger and Patai, Daphne (eds), Women's Words: Tfie Feminist Practice of Oral History (New York and London, 1991)Google Scholar.
22 Interviews with Agne s A., Hamburg, June 1981 and March 1984. Al l subsequent information on the H. family comes from these interviews and the ten-page biographical questionnaire that Agnes A. filled out in March 1981.
23 See Hagemann, “Notjahre”.
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28 See Hagemann, Frauenalltag pp. 51–89, esp. 70ff.; o n architecture, housing conditions and housing policy in the Weimar Republic more generally, see Buddensieg, Tilmann (ed.), Berlin 1900–1933: Architecture and Design (New York and Berlin, 1987)Google Scholar; Lane, Barbara Miller, Architecture and Politics in Germany, 1918–1945 (Cambridge, 1968)Google Scholar; Schildt and Sywottek, Massenwohnung, pp. 127–287; Herlyn, Ulfert, Saldern, Adelheid v. and Tessine, Wulf (eds), Neubausiedlungen der 20er und 60er Jahre: Ein historisch-soziologischer Vergleich (Frankfurt a. Main and New York, 1987)Google Scholar;Ruck, Michael, “Der Wohnungsbau -Schnittpunkt von Sozial- und Wirtschaftspolitik: Probleme der offentlichen Wohnungpolitik in der Hauszinssteuersra (1924/25–1930/31)”, in Abelshauser, Werner (ed.) Die Weimarer Republik als Wohlfahrtsstaat: Zum Verhaltnis von Wirtschafts- und Sozialpolitik in der Industriegesellschaft (Stuttgart, 1987), pp. 91–123Google Scholar; Witt, Peter-Christian, “Inflation, Wohnungszwangswirtschaft und Hauszinssteuer: Zur Regelung von Wohnungsbau und Wohnungsmarkt in der Weimarer Republik”, in Niethammer, Lutz (ed.), Wohnen im Wandel: BeitrSge zur Geschichte des Alltags in der bUrgerlichen Gesellschaft (Wuppertal, 1979), pp. 385–407Google Scholar; , Saldern, Sozialdentokratie, and “The Workers' Movement and Cultural Patterns o n Urban Housing Estates and in Rural Settlements in Germany and Austria during the 1920s”, Social History, 15 (1990), pp. 346ff.Google Scholar; Silvermann, D.P., “A Pledge Unredeemed: The Housing Crisis in Weimar Germany”, CEH, 3 (1970), pp. 112–139Google Scholar.
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31 Hagemann, Frauenalltag, pp. 73ff.
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36 Agnes A., March 1984. All subsequent quotations are also taken from this interview.
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40 See Hagemann, “Notjahre”.
41 See the instructions for washing in Meyer, Hauswirtschaftslehre, pp. 143ff.
42 See ibid., pp. 141ff.
43 For the importance of the women's network in the British working-class milieu, see Roberts, A Woman's Place, pp. 183–192; Ross, Ellen, “Survival Networks: Womens's Neighbourhood Sharing in London before World War I”, History Workshop 15 (Spring 1983)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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51 See Hagemann, Frauenalltag, pp. lllff.
52 See ibid., pp. 196–219.
53 See ibid., pp. 79–86 and 112; Hagemann, “Notjahr”.
54 See esp. Cowan, More Work for Mothers.