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² See Social Control in Nineteenth Century Britain, ed. by Donajgrodzki, A. P. (London, 1977);Google Scholar Popular Education and Socialization in the Nineteenth Century, ed. by McCann, P. (London, 1977);Google Scholar Hay, J. R., “Employers' Attitudes to Social Policy and the Concept of ‘Social Control’, 1900–1920”, in: The Origins of British Social Policy, ed. by Thane, P. (London, 1978), pp. 107–25.Google Scholar

³ Thompson, F. M. L., “Social Control in Victorian Britain”, in: Economic History Review, Second Series, XXXIV (1981), pp. 189–208;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Wiener, M., review of Social Control in Nineteenth Century Britain, in Journal of Social History, XII (1978–1979), p. 318.Google Scholar See also Popular Culture and Class Conflict 1590–1914, ed. by Yeo, E. and Yeo, S. (Brighton, 1981), ch. 5.Google Scholar

⁴ Gilbert, B. B., The Evolution of National Insurance in Great Britain (London, 1966), p. 32;Google Scholar Stedman Jones, G., “Working-Class Culture and Working-Class Politics in London, 1870–1900: Notes on the Remaking of a Working Class”, in: Journal of Social History, VII (1973–1974), pp. 466–69;Google Scholar also Storch, R. D., “Introduction”, in: Popular Culture and Custom in Nineteenth-Century England, ed. by id., (London, 1982); Times, 19 08 1882, p. 7; also 22 09, p. 8; 7 02 1883, p. 7.Google Scholar

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⁶ Gilbert, A. D., Religion and Society in Industrial England (London, 1976), pp. 42–43;Google Scholar Robertson, R., “The Salvation Army: The Persistence of Sectarianism”, in: Patterns of Sectarianism, ed. by Wilson, B. R. (London, 1967), p. 102;Google Scholar Sandall, R., The History of the Salvation Army (3 vols; London, 1947–1955), II, p. 338.Google Scholar

⁷ McLeod, H., “Class, Community and Region: The Religious Geography of Nineteenth-Century England”, in: A Sociological Yearbook of Religion in Britain, VI (1973), p. 57;Google Scholar id., Class and Religion in the Late Victorian City (London, 1974), pp. 27, 60;Google Scholar Inglis, K. S., Churches and the Working Classes in Victorian England (London, 1963), pp. 196–97;Google Scholar Ch., Booth, Life and Labour of the People in London (London, 1902–1903), Third Series, VII, p. 425; also I, p. 82; V, pp. 67–68.Google Scholar The Salvation Army was also well represented in Bradford, , Sheffield, Barrow and Runcorn, Robertson, “The Salvation Army”, p. 91.Google Scholar

⁸ Sandall, , The History of the Salvation Army, op. cit., I, pp. 15–18;Google Scholar Begbie, H., The Life of General William Booth (2 vols; New York, 1920), I, ch. 18;Google Scholar Ervine, S. J., God's Soldier. General William Booth (2 vols; London, 1934), I, Book II.Google Scholar

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¹⁰ Yeo, S., “A New Life: The Religion of Socialism in Britain, 1883–1896”, in: History Workshop, No 4 (1977), p. 42.Google Scholar

¹¹ For one instance of conflict, in Norwich between the “Army” and the Socialist League, see Daylight, , 8 01 1887; also 15 January.Google Scholar

¹² Lansbury, G., My Life (London, 1928), p. 85;Google Scholar Mayor, S., The Churches and the Labour Movement (London, 1967), pp. 322–23.Google Scholar See also Bailey, V., “Salvation Army Riots, the ‘Skeleton Army’ and Legal Authority in the Provincial Town”, in: Social Control in Nineteenth Century Britain, op. cit., pp. 231–53.Google Scholar

¹³ Metropolitan Police Records 2/254, Public Record Office, London.

¹⁴ Engels p., F., and Lafargue, L., Correspondence, II (Moscow, 1960), p. 85.Google Scholar Cf., Pall Mall Gazette, 29 03 1888, p. 4;Google Scholar Clarion, , 6 02 1892, p. 4. Other methods coincided; Captain Irons of Portsmouth recorded in his diary for 1 March 1879: “took 1500 handbills to the Dock gates, to distribute to workmen as they went home”,Google Scholar Railton, G. S., Captain Ted (London, 1880), p. 65.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Jones is quoted in Joyce, P., Work, Society and Politics (Brighton, 1980), p. 229.Google Scholar See Yeo, , “A New Life”, loc. cit., pp. 10–13, 17, 28; Workers' Cry, 15 August 1891. The Workers' Cry was the organ of the Labor (sic) Army, founded by Frank Smith, formerly of the Salvation Army, for whom see below, pp. 146f., 158f. The War Cry was the Salvation Army's weekly paper; the Clarion was an openly Socialist weekly, edited by Robert Blatchford.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Yeo, , “A New Life”, p. 13:Google Scholar Bramwell Booth's, W. contribution to Christianity and the Working Classes, ed. by Haw, G. (London, 1906), p. 155;Google Scholar Pierson, S., Marxism and the Origins of British Socialism (Ithaca, 1973), pp. 228–29;Google Scholar Kent, J., “Feelings and Festivals. An interpretation of some working-class religious attitudes”, in: The Victorian City: Images and Realities, ed. by Dyos, H. J. and Wolff, M. (2 vols; London, 1973), II. pp. 862–64.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Harrison, B., Drink and the Victorians (London, 1971), pp. 395–97;Google Scholar Kendall, W., The Revolutionary Movement in Britain 1900–1921 (London, 1969), p. 8.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Yeo, , “A New Life”, pp. 8, 13;Google Scholar Booth, , Life and Labour, op cit., Third Series, VI, p. 78.Google Scholar Cf., C. Booth, The Salvation Army in relation to the Church and State (London, 1883), pp. 20–21. Catholicism similarly gave the Irish poor in New York an internal discipline and a “militant respectability”. I owe this international comparison to Sheridan Gilley.Google Scholar

¹⁹ McBriar, A. M., Fabian Socialism and English Politics 1884–1918 (Cambridge, 1962), pp. 2–3;Google Scholar Douglas-Wilson, D., “The Search for Fellowship and Sentiment in British Socialism, 1880–1914” (M. A. thesis, Warwick University, 1971), passim;Google Scholar Sh., Rowbotham and Weeks, J., Socialism and the New Life (London, 1977), pp. 15–16;Google Scholar Wiener, M. J., Between Two Worlds. The Political Thought of Graham Wallas (Oxford, 1971), ch. 2;Google Scholar Clifford, J., Socialism and the Churches [Fabian Tract No 139] (London, 1908), p. 12.Google Scholar

²⁰ Storch, , “Introduction”, loc. cit.Google Scholar

²¹ Shaw, B., “The Illusions of Socialism”, in: Forecasts of the Coming Century (Manchester, 1897), p. 158.Google Scholar

²² Briggs, A., “The Language of ‘Mass’ and ‘Masses’ in Nineteenth-Century England”, in: Ideology and the Labour Movement, ed. by Martin, D. E. and Rubinstein, D. (London, 1979), passim.Google Scholar

²³ Inglis, , Churches, op. cit., p. 95;Google Scholar Meacham, S., “The Church in the Victorian City”, in: Victorian Studies, XI (1968), p. 361. The Labour Churches were usually organized by branches of the Independent Labour Party, Inglis, ch. 6;Google Scholar Pierson, , Marxism, , op. cit., p. 235.Google Scholar

²⁴ McBriar, , Fabian Socialism, op. cit., p. 6;Google Scholar Pierson, , Marxism, p. 88;Google Scholar Wolfe, W., From Radicalism to Socialism. Men and Ideas in the Formation of Fabian Socialist Doctrines, 1881–1889 (London, 1975), p. 303.Google Scholar

²⁵ Ch., Ward, “The Social Sources of the Salvation Army, 1865–1890” (M.Ph. thesis, London University, 1970), ch. 5.Google Scholar

²⁶ Booth, , Life and Labour, Third Series, I, pp. 176–77; VI, pp. 25, 32, 77; VII, p. 327; Times, 19 August 1882, p. 7;Google Scholar Ward, , “The Social Sources,” p. 118;Google Scholar Thompson, P., Socialists, Liberals and Labour (London, 1967), pp. 18–19.Google Scholar

²⁷ Booth, W. B. in Christianity and the Working Classes, op. cit., p. 152.Google Scholar

²⁸ Cf., Ward, “The Social Sources”, pp. 154–55, 167, 270–72.Google Scholar

²⁹ Ibid., pp. 148–50.

³⁰ Northampton Daily Echo, 10 and 12 September 1910, cutting in the Gertrude Tuck-well Collection, Trades Union Congress Library.

³¹ For Frank Smith, see below, pp. 146f., 158f. For the suffragettes (Mrs Jessie Payne, Mrs Baines, Mrs Schiette and Harriet Bennett) see Pankhurst, E. S., The Home Front (London, 1932), p. 97;Google Scholar id., The Suffragette Movement (London, 1931), pp. 475–79;Google Scholar id., The Suffragette (London, 1911), p. 324;Google Scholar The Workers' Dreadnought, IV (1917–1918), p. 938. I am indebted to Carolyn Stevens of the University of Rochester, New York, and to Rosemary Tyler for this information.Google Scholar

³² Booth, , Life and Labour, Third Series, III, p. 209;Google Scholar Inglis, , Churches, p. 45;Google Scholar Yeo, S., “Religion in Society: a view from a provincial town in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries” (Ph.D. thesis, Sussex University, 1971), p. 137, note 49; Saturday Review, LIII (1882), P. 763; My Adventures with General William Booth, Henry Edmonds 1877–1889 (Private circulation, 1930);Google Scholar Robertson, , “The Salvation Army”, pp. 55–56.Google Scholar

³³ Times, 10 May 1886, p. 6; Robertson, , “The Salvation Army”, p. 76; Saturday Review, LIV (1882), p. 243;Google Scholar Redstone, J. J. R., An Ex-Captain's Experience of the Salvation Army (London, 1888).Google Scholar

³⁴ Booth, , Life and Labour, Third Series, VII, pp. 337, 345;Google Scholar Inglis, , Churches, p. 184.Google Scholar

³⁵ Railton, G. S., The History of Our South African War (London, 1902), p. 129;Google Scholar Swinny, S. H., “John Wesley and General Booth”, in: Positivist Review, XX (1912), pp. 217–22.Google Scholar Arthur Clibborn and Kate Booth, the General's daughter, pleaded for permission to condemn the Boer War, without success, Scott, C., The Heavenly Witch: The Story of the Marechale (London, 1982).Google Scholar

³⁶ Baker, B., The Social Democratic Federation and the Boer War [Our History Pamphlet No 59] (London, 1974), passim;Google Scholar Etherington, N., “Hyndman, the Social-Democratic Federation, and Imperialism”, in: Historical Studies (Melbourne), XVI (1974), pp. 89–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar For a different interpretation of popular attitudes, however, see Price, R., An Imperial War and the British Working Class (London, 1972), passim.Google Scholar

³⁷ Cited in Inglis, , Churches, pp. 175–76. See also War Cry, 29 02 1886; Times, 26 07 1882, p. 6 (Mrs Booth speaking at Blackheath).Google Scholar Cf., K. S. Inglis, “English Nonconformity and Social Reform, 1880–1900”, in: Past & Present, No 13 (1958), pp. 83–86;CrossRefGoogle Scholar H. Pelling, “Religion and the Nineteenth-Century British Working Class”, ibid., No 27 (1964), pp. 128–33.

³⁸ E.g., Beer, R., Matchgirls Strike 1888. The Struggle Against Sweated Labour in London's East End [National Museum of Labour History Pamphlet No 2] (London, n.d.), pp. 19–20.Google Scholar

³⁹ First Report from the Select Committee of the House of Lords on the Sweating System, with Minutes of Evidence [C. 361] (1888), pp. 248, 254, 353; Times, 10 May 1888, p.6.

⁴⁰ First Report from the Select Committee of the House of Lords on the Sweating System, pp. 1005–06; Times, 7 May 1888, p. 16; 12 May, p. 17; also War Cry, 13 April 1889; Ervine, , God's Soldier, op. cit., II, pp. 694–96.Google Scholar

⁴¹ See below, pp. 160f., 168ff.

⁴² Home Office Papers 45/9802/B5587/1, Public Record Office (hereafter HO). In December 1888, General Booth asked the Home Office for £15,000 to provide cheap shelters for the outcast poor, Hansard, Third Series, CCCXXXII (1888), c. 648; Times, 11 December 1888, p. 5; 25 December, p. 9.

⁴³ Metropolitan Police Records 2/203: Booth, , In Darkest England, op. cit., pp. 99–100.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Inglis, , Churches, p. 201;Google Scholar Stedman Jones, G., Outcast London: A Study in the Relationship between Classes in Victorian Society (Oxford, 1971), pp. 289, 345–46;Google Scholar Bailey, V., “The Metropolitan Police, the Home Office and the Threat of Outcast London”, in Policing and Punishment in Nineteenth Century Britain, ed. by id, . (London, 1981), p. 97.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ War Cry, 29 November 1890; Tillett, B., Memories and Reflections (London, 1931), p. 92;Google Scholar Stafford, A., A Match to Fire the Thames (London, 1961), pp. 24, 139–40, 185.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Inglis, , Churches, p. 202;Google Scholar Champness, E. I., Frank, Smith, M.P. Pioneer and Modern Mystic (London, 1943), pp. 6–11.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Hardie, J. K., “Frank Smith, L.C.C.,” in: Labour Prophet, III (1894), p. 113. The Labour Prophet was the organ of the Labour Church.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Champness, Frank Smith, loc. cit.; Armytage, W. H. G., Heavens Below. Utopian Experiments in England 1560–1960 (London, 1961), p. 317.Google Scholar Progress and Poverty was published in America in 1879, in England in 1881. George lectured energetically in Britain to publicize his single-land-tax plan, Ausubel, H., In Hard Times. Reformers Among the Late Victorians (New York, 1960), pp. 106–08.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴⁹ Methodist Times, VI (1890), p. 1077; Inglis, , Churches, p. 202;Google Scholar Thompson, E. P., William Morris (London, 1977), pp. 493–94. See also note 13.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Champness, , Frank Smith, p. 12;Google Scholar Inglis, , Churches, p. 202; Star, 24 09 1890, p. 1; Justice, 30 08, p. 2;Google Scholar Woods, R. A., English Social Movements (London, 1892), pp. 171–72;Google Scholar Murdoch, N. H., “Salvationist-Socialist Frank Smith, M.P.: Father of Salvation Army Social Work”, unpublished paper delivered at the Fourth Annual Salvation Army Historical Conference, New York, 09 1978.Google Scholar

⁵¹ War Cry, 30 August 1890. In January 1887, Catherine Booth had told Henry George that “privately she would further his ideas as much as she could but that her position made it impossible for her to advocate his views publicly”, Ausubel, , In Hard Times, op. cit., p. 115.Google Scholar

⁵² War Cry, 30 August, 13 and 27 September, 1 and 29 November 1890. Smith left the Salvation Army before the final three articles were written, see below, pp. 158f. See also Inglis, , Churches, p. 209;Google Scholar Ch., Parkin, “The Salvation Army and Social Questions of the Day,” in: A Sociological Yearbook of Religion in Britain, VI, p. 111. It would be interesting to know if any accord between the Salvation Army and the labour movement developed in the United States. My impression, for what it is worth, is that there were similar linkages: Labour Leader, IX (1897), p. 355;Google Scholar Boyer, P., Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820–1920 (Cambridge, Mass., 1978), pp. 140–41.Google Scholar

⁵³ Yeo, , “A New Life,” p. 39.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Ibid., pp. 14, 51, note 34; Blatchford, R., My Eighty Years (London, 1931), pp. 189–90;Google Scholar Pankhurst, , The Suffragette Movement, op. cit., pp. 128–29;Google Scholar Pierson, , Marxism, p. 228. Brocklehurst was a key figure in the Labour Church movement.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Cf. Thompson, “Social Control in Victorian Britain”, loc. cit.

⁵⁶ Inglis, , Churches, p. 209;Google Scholar Hardie, , “Frank Smith”, loc. cit.; also Star, 24 September 1890, p. 1. A Times correspondent believed that “the ideas of the substantial parts of the scheme – that is to say, of the city colony and the farm colony – had their origin in the mind of Mr. Frank Smith,” Times, 26 December 1890, p. 5.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Booth, W. B., Echoes and Memories (London, 1926), pp. 141–43;Google Scholar Whyte, F., The Life of W. T. Stead (2 vols; London, 1925), II, p. 12;Google Scholar Begbie, , General William Booth, op. cit., II, pp. 92–93; Murdoch, “Salvationist-Socialist Frank Smith”, op. cit., p. 5;Google Scholar Booth, , In Darkest England, p. 136. In the Preface to In Darkest England, Booth acknowledged “valuable literary help” from a friend of the poor. Professor J. O. Baylen of Georgia State University, Atlanta, is about to publish what promises to be the definitive biography of W. T. Stead.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ Inglis, , Churches, p. 203;Google Scholar W. Booth to A. White, 24 October 1890, to be found in the copy of White, A., The Great Idea (London, 1910), in the archives of the Salvation Army.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Whyte, , Stead, W. T., op. cit., II, p. 13.Google Scholar Milner had previously been on the staff of the Pall Mall Gazette, Gollin, A. M., Proconsul in Politics. A Study of Lord Milner in Opposition and in Power (London, 1964), pp. 10–11, 19.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Whyte, , Stead, W. T., II, p. 13.Google Scholar

⁶¹ d'A. Jones, P., The Christian Socialist Revival 1877–1914 (Princeton, 1968), p. 398;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Inglis, , Churches, pp. 203–04;Google Scholar Harris, J., Unemployment and Politics (Oxford, 1972), pp. 119–21.Google Scholar It is unknown whether Booth ever consulted the pamphlet Our Tramps, issued by the Church Army (the Church of England's imitation Salvation Army) in March 1890, in which a threefold scheme of City, Farming and Over-Sea colonies was first propounded, Heasman, K., Evangelicals in Action (London, 1962), pp. 59–60.Google Scholar It seems unlikely, finally, that Charles Booth's scheme of labour colonies influenced In Darkest England, Brown, J., “Charles Booth and Labour Colonies, 1889–1905,” in: Economic History Review, Second Series, XXI (1968), p. 357; Harris, loc. cit., p. 119.Google Scholar

⁶² Bebbington, D. W., “The City, the Countryside and the Social Gospel in Late Victorian Nonconformity,” in: The Church in Town and Countryside [Studies in Church History, XVI] (Oxford, 1979), pp. 418–23;Google Scholar Kent, J., “The Role of Religion in the Cultural Structure of the Later Victorian City,” in: Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Fifth Series, XXIII (1973), pp. 153–73;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Stedman, Jones, Outcast London, op. cit., pp. 308–12, 311, note 20. I agree with Jones when he says that General Booth and Frank Smith “were probably not motivated by any particular ambition to advance the cause of social imperialism”.Google Scholar

⁶³ McBriar, , Fabian Socialism, p. 27;Google Scholar Besant, A., “Industry Under Socialism”, in: Fabian Essays in Socialism, ed. by Shaw, G. B. (London, 1889), p. 154–55.Google Scholar Annie Besant was also clearly influenced by the Rev. H. V. Mills's Poverty and the State. Keir Hardie proposed Home Colonies at the inaugural conference of the ILP in Bradford, in January 1893, which was held in the Labour Institute, formerly a Salvation Army “citadel”. Peffing, H., The Origins of the Labour Party 1880–1900 (Oxford, 1965), p. 119.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Parkin, , “The Salvation Army”, loc. cit., p. 116.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Robertson, , “The Salvation Army,” pp. 65, 83;Google Scholar Inglis, , Churches, p. 195;Google Scholar Booth, , In Darkest England, pp. 45, 232.Google Scholar The Darkest England scheme was certainly the beginning of Booth's widespread popularity, following a decade of opposition, and it revived a flagging Salvation Army, Nicol, A. M., General Booth and the Salvation Army (London, 1911), pp. 192–93.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Booth, , In Darkest England, p. 12; Armytage, Heavens Below, op. cit., p. 318;Google Scholar Smith, W. S., The London Heretics 1870–1914 (New York, 1968), p. 14.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Booth, , In Darkest England, p. 27.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Ibid., p. 50. For the Army's rescue work with prostitutes, see Prochaska, F. K., Women and Philanthropy in Nineteenth Century England (Oxford, 1980), pp. 190, 202–03.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Booth, , In Darkest England, pp. 18, 34;Google Scholar Harris, , Unemployment and Politics, op. cit., pp. 124–25.Google Scholar For a critical response to Booth's view that unemployment caused distress, by the economic historian Ashley, W. J., who preferred the sentiments of the COS, see “General Booth's Panacea”, in: Political Science Quarterly, VI (1891), p. 546. I accept of course that the assault upon laissez-faire attitudes towards poverty was, at this date, a characteristic also of the writings of the social imperialists, Stedman Jones, Outcast London, p. 311.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Booth, , In Darkest England, pp. 36, 67–72.Google Scholar S., Cf. and Webb, B., The Prevention of Destitution (London, 1916), pp. 234–35.Google Scholar

⁷¹ Booth, , In Darkest England, p. 20.Google Scholar Booth regretted that a prison standard would be to set things too high: “Some time, perhaps, we may venture to hope that every honest worker on English soil will always be as warmly clad, as healthily housed, and as regularly fed as our criminal convicts — but that is not yet.” Ibid., p. 19.

⁷² Ibid., pp. 18, 77–80, 108, 110, Appendix 2. Anti-sweating experiments were an integral part of the scheme, whether it was the proposal to enter the matchbox-making industry or the labour exchange for the employment of sandwich men, bill-distributors and messengers.

⁷³ Ausubel, H., “General Booth's Scheme of Social Salvation,” in: American Historical Review, LVI (1950–1951), pp. 519–25;Google Scholar Inglis, , Churches, pp. 204–09; Mayor, The Churches and the Labour Movement, op. cit., p. 52.Google Scholar For a sample of responses to In Darkest England, see Review of Reviews, II (1890), pp. 382ff., 492ff.; Economist, XLVIII (1890), p. 1468; Peek, F., “General Booth's Social Work,” in: Contemporary Review, LXII (1892), pp. 59–84.Google Scholar Most “experts” on London pauperism, with the exception of Peek, denounced the scheme as impractical, financially prohibitive, over-ambitious and a duplication of existing schemes to aid the submerged. Loch, C. S., An Examination of “General” Booth's Social Scheme (London, 1890), passim, but esp. p. 94, for the COS, predictably criticized the absence of all discrimination and the neglect of inquiry in the demoralizing provision of free food and shelter. The reaction of the main London newspapers to In Darkest England was generally very favourable. See the Daily Telegraph, Daily News and Daily Chronicle for 20 October 1890.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ Woods, English Social Movements, op. cit., p. 19; Review of Reviews, II, p. 652; Commonweal, VII (1891), p. 5; Reynolds's Newspaper, 23 November 1890, p. 4. The Executive Council of Tillett's Dock, Wharf, Riverside and General Labourers Union congratulated Booth “for the efforts he is now making on behalf of the downtrodden and helpless”, Docker's Record, December, p. 12. There was a favourable reaction also from the Workman's Times, 31 October, and the English Labourers Chronicle, 22 November.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ Reynolds's Newspaper, 26 October, p. 4; 23 November, p. 2; also Armytage, , Heavens Below, p. 321. Cf. Weekly Dispatch, 23 November.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ Star, 20 October, pp. 1–2; 21 October, p. 1. In the 1890's, the Star was the organ of the “Progressives” on the London County Council.

⁷⁷ Labour World, 25 October, p. 8; 15 November, p. 3 (letter). Cf. the response to In Darkest England of Durant, an English single-taxer, in a letter to Henry George, 27 October: “You will be pleased with it. It seems to me the most important thing that has occurred for some time”, cited in Ausubel, In Hard Times, p. 108.

⁷⁸ Christian Socialist, December 1890, January and March 1891. For more critical expressions of Christian Socialist opinion, see Th., Hancock, Salvation by Mammon. Two Sermons on Mr. Booth's Scheme (London, 1891), p. 16; Church Reformer, IX (1890), p. 286;Google Scholar Jones, , The Christian Socialist Revival, op. cit., pp. 108–11, 121.Google Scholar

⁷⁹ “Elihu”, Is General Booth's Darkest England Scheme a Failure? A Word of Protest and Advice (Manchester, London, 1893), passim, but esp. pp. 11–12.

⁸⁰ Hyndman, H. M., General Booth's Book Refuted (London, 1890), passim, but esp.pp. 4, 6, 8, 11.Google Scholar

⁸¹ Justice, 17 January 1891, p. 3; 24 January, p. 2 (H. Quelch spoke of Booth's “policy of pigwash and piety”); 9 April 1892, p. 2; Commonweal, VI (1890), pp. 345–46, 365. Cf. John Burns's critical response to the social scheme in an address to a Battersea Music Hall, Labour World, 1 November 1890, p. 2. Burns maintained a critical view of the Farm Colony, as he gradually abandoned the socialists for the Liberal Party, Brown, K. D.,Labour and Unemployment 1900–1914 (Newton Abbot, 1971), p. 81;Google Scholar Marsh, J., “The Unemployed and the Land”, in: History Today, 04 1982, p. 20; Times, 7 February 1908, p. 12. For a less hostile Socialist response, see the opening quotation to this article from Friedrich Engels.Google Scholar

⁸² Methodist Times, VI, p. 956, cited in Inglis, , Churches, p. 194.Google Scholar

⁸³ Stead, W. T., “The Labour Party and the Books that helped to make it,” in: Review of Reviews, XXXIII (1906), pp. 568–82, quote at p. 580.Google Scholar For Summerbell, see Martin, D., “‘The Instruments of the People?’: The Parliamentary Labour Party in 1906”, in: Ideology and the Labour Movement, op. cit., pp. 128–29; Brown, Labour and Unemployment, op. cit., passim. The Webbs recommended In Darkest England for information on the most destitute, in The Prevention of Destitution, op. cit., p. 13.Google Scholar

⁸⁴ War Cry, 3 January 1891; Daily Chronicle, 2 January; 5 January (letter); Times, 6 January, p. 5; Champness, Frank Smith, pp. 14–16.

⁸⁵ Inglis, , Churches, pp. 209–10;Google Scholar Harris, , Unemployment and Politics, p. 128; HO 45/9861/13077D/1–2.Google Scholar

⁸⁶ 86 Times, 26 December 1890, p. 5; 29 December, p.4; 30 December, p. 5; 2 January 1891, pp. 5,7; Justice, 3 January, p. 1.

⁸⁷ Workers' Cry, 2 May 1891; Labour Prophet, 1(1892), p. 24; III, p. 114; War Cry, 30 November 1901; All the World, December 1901; Armytage, , Heavens Below, p. 320;Google Scholar Murdoch, , “Salvationist-Socialist Frank Smith”, p. 10;Google Scholar Champness, , Frank Smith, pp. 19–49.Google Scholar See also Morgan, K. O., Keir Hardie (London, 1975), pp. 45–46, for Smith's unique brand of ethical socialism.Google Scholar

⁸⁸ Booth, W. B. to General Booth, 9, 11 and 14 04 1891,7 12 1894, 18 10 1895; id. to Commissioner Pollard, 13 12 1895; letters to General Booth, 29 09 1894, 8 11 1895, Salvation Army archives.Google Scholar See General Booth to Booth, W. B., 29 11 1905:Google Scholar “Your letter made me very sad last night, but Hadleigh has ever been a trial to us.” See also Hadleigh Official Journal, 1908–09; Swan, A. S., The Outsiders (London, 1905–1906), p. 61; Selected Papers on the Social Work of the Salvation Army (London, 1907–1908); Third Report from the Select Committee on Distress from Want of Employment [C. 365] (1895), qq. 9607–09 (H. E. Moore);Google Scholar Fleay, C., “Hadleigh: A labour colony and its problems, 1891–1914,” in: Middlesex Polytechnic History Journal, 11 (1981), passim.Google Scholar I am extremely grateful to Mr Fleay for sending me an offprint of this article. For descriptions of the Farm Colony, see Booth, , Life and Labour, Third Senes, VI, pp. 178–81; Report on Agencies and Methods for Dealing with the Unemployed (Board of Trade, Labour Department) [C. 7182] (1893–1894), pp. 549–52. However, a favourable account of Hadleigh Colony appeared in the Clarion, 16 June 1892, p. 7.Google Scholar

⁸⁹ Mitchell, D. C., The Darkest England Match Industry (Camberley, 1976), passim;Google Scholar Mayor, , The Churches and the Labour Movement, p. 51;Google Scholar Booth, W. B., Work in Darkest England in 1894 (London, 1894), p. 30.Google Scholar

⁹⁰ Heasman, , Evangelicals in Action, op. cit., pp. 60–61;Google Scholar Booth, , Life and Labour, First Series, I, p. 127; Third Series, VI, pp. 174-85; VII, p. 342; HO 45/9729/A52912;Google Scholar Clarion, , 27 08 1892, p. 6; 3 09, p. 6; 17 09, p. 4; 24 09, p. 5;Google Scholar Booth, W. B., Light in Darkest England in 1895 (London, 1895), p. 25. There were shelters in Bristol, Leeds, Bradford and Manchester, and one for women in both Edinburgh and Cardiff, in addition to the London shelters. For more favourable comments on the Salvation Army shelters, see Report of the Inter-Departmental Committee on Physical Deterioration [Cd 2175] (1904), qq. 3669 (D. Eyre), 7876 (W. H. Libby).Google Scholar

⁹¹ “Elihu”, General Booth's Darkest England Scheme, op. cit., p. 11; Roxby, R. B., General Booth Limited. A Lime-Light on the “Darkest England” Scheme (London, 1893), p. 5;–21 05, p. 8; 27 08, p. 6; 3 09, p. 6:15 10, p. 5; 26 11, p. 5.Google Scholar See ibid., 1 October, p. 8, letter from a firewood cutter: “Now, when Commissioner Smith was head of the Salvation Army he received our deputation, and promised us that he would discontinue the practice of Firewood Cutting in the Salvation Army.” See also Church Reformer (edited by Headlam), XI (1892), pp. 210, 227–29, 249, 277; Headlam, S., Christian Socialism [Fabian Tract No 42] (London, 1892), p. 10. For Bramwell Booth's reply to these charges, and to the related charges of underselling on the Farm Colony, see Third Report from the Select Committee on Distress from Want of Employment, op. cit., qq. 9911, 9913. There were workshops in Bradford, Bristol, Manchester, Leeds and Hull, as well as in London. By 1903, there were 64 “elevators” in operation, Living Epistles: Sketches of the Social Work of the Salvation Army (London, 1903), p. 36.Google Scholar

⁹² Webb, B., Our Partnership (London, 1948), pp. 125–26;Google Scholar Ervine, , God's Soldier, II, p. 729. In consequence, the London Trades Council refused to join a demonstration against the Salvation Army organized by the Printers Federation.Google Scholar

⁹³ Report of the Departmental Committee on Vagrancy [Cd 2891] (1906) (hereafter Vagrancy Committee), p. 96 (para 332), qq. 7414–16 (D. C. Lamb). In 1895, the Argentine looked like a possible site for an oversea colony, Booth, W. B. to General Booth, 18 10 1895, Salvation Army archives.Google Scholar

⁹⁴ Harris, , Unemployment and Politics, pp. 124–35, quote at p. 128.Google Scholar

⁹⁵ Third Report from the Select Committee on Want of Employment, q. 9963.

⁹⁶ Ibid., q. 9911.

⁹⁷ Fleay, , “Hadleigh”, loc. cit., p. 6;Google Scholar Booth, , Life and Labour, Third Series, I, p. 108; VII, p. 341;Google Scholar Vagrancy Committee, q. 5371 (Crooks); McBriar, , Fabian Socialism, pp. 120, 198, 202.Google Scholar

⁹⁸ Vagrancy Committee, q. 7322 (Lamb).

⁹⁹ Armytage, , Heavens Below, p. 321;Google Scholar Booth, , Echoes and Memories, op. cit., pp. 148–50. In 1895, W. T. Stead also visited Hadleigh and was “captured by what he saw” according to Bramwell Booth, Begbie, General William Booth, II, p. 204.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁰ Blatchford, , My Eighty Yeats, op. cit., pp. 209–13; Hansard, Fourth Series, CXVIII (1903), c. 324 (Sir John Gorst);Google Scholar Gilbert, , National Insurance in Britain, op. cit., p. 99.Google Scholar

¹⁰¹ Report on the Salvation Army Colonies in the United States and at Hadleigh, England […] by Commissioner Haggard, H. Rider [Cd 2562] (1905), pp. 370, 377–79, 430–35; Report by the Departmental Committee appointee to consider Mr. Rider Haggard 's Report on Agricultural Settlements in British Colonies [Cd 2978] (1906), p. 545.Google Scholar One of the members of Lord Tennyson's Committee was Sidney Webb. See also Cohen, M. N., Haggard, Rider. His Life and Works (New York, 1961), pp. 239–43. Rider Haggard's report appeared in popular form as The Poor and the Land (1905), which was recommended reading in More Books to Read on Social and Economic Subjects [Fabian Tract No 129] (London, 1906).Google Scholar

¹⁰² Harris, , Unemployment and Politics, pp. 131–32; Vagrancy Committee, p. 77 (para 264), qq. 7 103–24 (Lamb), 10585–86 (H. Lockwood), Appendix XXIV.Google Scholar

¹⁰³ Emigration-Colonisation: Proposals by General Booth (London, 1905), Beveridge Collection, Coll. B, III, item 28, British Library of Political and Economic Science; Fleay, C., “The Salvation Army and Emigration 1890–1914,” in: Middlesex Polytechnic History Journal, I (1980), pp. 63–64;Google Scholar cf., G. Wagner, Children of the Empire (London, 1982).Google Scholar Between 1906 and 1908, however, William Booth was pressing the Liberal Cabinet, particularly Earl Rosebery, for a loan of £100,000 for a Rhodesian colonization scheme, but without success: Begbie, , General William Booth, II, pp. 362–68;Google Scholar Hyam, R., Elgin and Churchill at the Colonial Office 1905–1908 (London, 1968), p. 287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁰⁴ HO 45/10499/117669/4; Booth, W. to Booth, W. B., 29 11 1905, Salvation Army archives; Vagrancy Committee, qq. 6189, 7504; The Vagrant and the “Unemployable”. A Proposal by General Booth (London, 1904), pp. 9–18. For Wiffiam Beveridge's annotations to this pamphlet, see Beveridge Collection, Coil. B, IV, item 38.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁵ Vagrancy Committee, Appendix XXVII. Gorst's bill was supported by Herbert Gladstone and R. B. Haldane, Liberal MPs, and by D. J. Shackleton and Will Crooks, Labour MPs. See HO 45/10499/117669/10 and 10578/179621/1–2. For Gorst, see McBriar, , Fabian Socialism, p. 215;Google Scholar Begbie, , General William Booth, II, p. 361;Google Scholar Gilbert, , National Insurance in Britain, pp. 94–95, 98–99, 130;Google Scholar Gorst, J. E., “Governments and Social Reform,” in: Fortnightly Review, LXXVII (1905), p. 848; id.,Google Scholar “Physical Deterioration in Great Britain,” in: North American Review, CLXXXI (1905), pp. 1–10;Google Scholar Hansard, , Fourth Series, CXXXV (1904), c. 648. See also Report of the Inter-Departmental Committee on Physical Deterioration, p. 24 (para 91).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁶ See Vorspan, R., “Vagrancy and the New Poor Law in late-Victorian and Edwardian England,” in: English Historical Review, XCII (1977), pp. 78–79. See also Lloyd's Weekly News, 11 03 1906, p. 14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁰⁷ Hardie, J. K., “Dealing With the Unemployed”, in: Nineteenth Century, LVII (1905), p. 52;Google Scholar Vorspan, , “Vagrancy and the New Poor Law”, p. 79.Google Scholar For Lansbury and Crooks, see Harris, , Unemployment and Politics, pp. 139–41, 143, 237;Google Scholar Marsh, , “The Unemployed and the Land”, loc. cit., pp. 16–20. The Weekly Dispatch, 2 02 1908, p. 6, however, was critical of this part of the Labour Party's scheme.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁸ Orwell, G., The Road to Wigan Pier (London, 1937), p. 212;Google Scholar Gilbert, , National Insurance in Britain, pp. 72–77.Google Scholar See also Ball, S., The Moral Aspect of Socialism [Fabian Tract No 72] (London, 1896), p. 5; The Abolition of Poor Law Guardians [Fabian Tract No 126] (London, 1906), p. 22.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁹ Webb, , Our Partnership, op. cit., p. 396.Google Scholar

¹¹⁰ Ibid., p. 400.

¹¹¹ Ibid., p. 401; id. to Mary Playne, 2 February 1908, Passfield Papers, II,4 d, item 2. S., Cf. and Webb, B., The Prevention of Destitution, p. 243. See also Royal Commission on the Poor Laws and Relief of Distress [Cd 4499] (1909), pp. 633 (Majority), 1206–08 (Minority). The Majority Report also proposed labour colonies for the residuum.Google Scholar

¹¹² See Nicol, , General Booth and the Salvation Army, op. cit., p. 204.Google Scholar

¹¹³ Etherington, , “Hyndman, the Social-Democratic Federation, and Imperialism,” loc. cit., p. 98;Google Scholar Armytage, , Heavens Below, p. 326.Google Scholar R. V. Clements, Cf., “Trade Unions and Emigration 1840–1880,” in: Population Studies, IX (1955), pp. 167–80.Google Scholar

¹¹⁴ Clegg, H. A., Fox, A. and Thompson, A. F., A History of British Trade Unions since 1889, I (Oxford, 1964), p. 403, note 7; Times, 6 09 1907, p. 5.Google Scholar

¹¹⁵ This section is based on work done by Sheila Blackburn of Manchester University on the newspaper cuttings in Folder 207 of the Gertrude Tuckwell Collection. Tuckwell was, amongst other things, the honorary secretary of the Women's Trade Union League. The following items were the most helpful: Morning Post and Daily Chronicle for 7 September 1908; Nottingham Guardian, 10 September; Morning Leader, 20 January 1909; Bromley Chronicle, 18 February; Eastern Daily Press, 28 June; Dulwich Post, 14 August; Glasgow Herald, 27 September; Derby Telegraph, 15 August 1910; Northampton Echo, 10 September. See also Times, 2 September 1908, p. 10; 13 February 1909, p. 8; 8 March, p. 10; 30 August, p. 2; Salvation Army Sweating: Manifesto by the United Workers' Anti-Sweating Committee, Beveridge Collection, Coll. B, IV, item 15.

¹¹⁶ Daily News, 26 August 1907; Labour Leader, New Series, IV (1907), pp. 152, 178.

¹¹⁷ Daily Express, 26 August; Tribune, 7 September; Star, 16 September; Times, 7 September, p. 7; 22 September 1908, p. 9; A Calumny Exposed. A Reply to the unfounded charges of Sweating brought against the Hanbury Street Labour Home (London, 1909), passim. Alex Nicol subsequently left the Salvation Army and wrote favourably of state or Fabian socialism. Of the sweating issue, he later said: “It was alleged that sweating was practised here — I know it was. The Army officials argued to the contrary, and I am rather ashamed that I was among the number”. General Booth and the Salvation Army, p. 202.

¹¹⁸ Gardiner, A. G., Prophets, Priests, and Kings (London, 1914), p. 193.Google Scholar Booth's intransigence hardly dovetailed with the anti-sweating movement of the early twentieth century, for which see Mayor, , The Churches and the Labour Movement, pp. 124, 136, 219;Google Scholar Solden, N. C., Women in British Trade Unions 1874–1976 (Dublin, 1978), p. 65;Google Scholar Sh., Lewenhak, Women and Trade Unions (London, 1977), pp. 119–20.Google Scholar

¹¹⁹ Times, 9 September 1908, p. 12; Labour Leader, New Series, V (1908), p. 586; Our Society's History, ed. by Higenbottam, S. (Manchester, 1939), pp. 176–79; Report of Proceedings at the Forty-Second Annual Trades Union Congress (London, 1909), pp. 75–84, 119-22.Google Scholar

¹²⁰ Times, 28 May 1908, p. 12; 5 February 1909, p. 7. Nor did the Anti-Sweating Committee gain any assistance from the Report of the Departmental Committee on the Truck Acts [Cd 4442] (1908), pp. 17–18. See, however, the Minority Report by Stephen Walsh and MrsTennant, H. J. at p. 93. Keir Hardie still often visited Salvation Army shelters in order to help the destitute, Pankhurst, The Suffragette Movement, p. 179;Google Scholar Morgan, , Keir Hardie, op. cit., p. 127.Google Scholar

¹²¹ Report of the Forty-Second Annual TUC, pp. 119–22; Yorkshire Evening News, 1910, undated cutting in the Tuckwell Collection; Times, 14 September 1910, p. 8.

¹²² Harrison, , Drink and the Victorians, op. cit., pp. 397–405.Google Scholar For the continued strength of the Nonconformist connection, however, see Mayor, , The Churches and the Labour Movement, p. 339;Google Scholar Brown, K. D., “Non-Conformity and the British Labour Movement: A Case Study”, in: Journal of Social History, VIII (1974–1975), No 2, pp. 113–20.Google Scholar

¹²³ Booth, , Life and Labour, Third Series, VII, pp. 422ff.;Google Scholar Stedman, Jones, “Working Class Culture and Working-Class Politics,” loc. cit., pp. 460–508.Google Scholar

¹²⁴ Shaw, G. B., Major Barbara (London, 1980), p. 98.Google Scholar