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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 18 December 2008
The Commune marked a decisive moment in America's historical and political consciousness and in her image of her own revolutionary tradition. The impact of the Commune is best appreciated when the response it evoked is placed in the context of America's reaction to France's revolutionary efforts from the summer of 1789 to the spring of 1968. In these two centuries the prevailing attitude in the United States shifted steadily from an openness toward the necessity of revolutions to a position of fear and dread of this historical action. Americans at all times used the French experience as a mirror to examine their own conflicts and contradictions, their greatest expectations, their gravest anxieties, their receptivity to innovation, and their hostility to change. Each crisis in France polarized opinion in the United States and on some occasions such as the Commune the resulting tensions concretely influenced the course of the nation's history.
page 240 note 1 The only effort to survey America's response to France's revolutions is that of Curtis, Eugene N., “American Opinion of the French Nineteenth-Century Revolutions”, in: The American Historical Review, XXIX (1924), pp. 249–270.CrossRefGoogle Scholar The standard account of America's reaction to the French Revolution of 1789 is Charles Hazen, Contemporary American Opinion of the French Revolution, Baltimore 1897. The best account of American reaction to 1848 is that of Curti, Merle, “The Impact of the Revolutions of 1848 on American Thought”, in: Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, XCIII (Philadelphia 1949), pp. 209–215.Google Scholar
page 241 note 1 Levy, Sheldon G., “A 150-Year Study of Political Violence in the United States”, in: Hugh Davis Graham and Ted Robert Guss, Violence in America: Historical and Comparative Perspectives, New York 1969, p. 89Google Scholar, and see also Richard Maxwell Brown, “Historical Patterns of Violence in America”, ibid., pp. 45–84.
page 241 note 2 45th Congress 2nd Session. Senate Executive Document No. 24. Vol. I. Franco-German War and Insurrection of the Commune. Correspondence of Washburne, E. B., Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of the United States to France, Washington 1878, p. 157.Google Scholar
page 242 note 1 Ibid., 164.
page 242 note 2 Ibid., 168.
page 242 note 3 Ibid., 209.
page 242 note 4 The most valuable discussion of the Commune and the American press is that of Bernstein, Samuel, “The American Press Views the Commune”, in: Samuel Bernstein, Essays in Political and Intellectual History, New York 1955, pp. 169–183.Google Scholar See also Samuel Bernstein, The First International in America, New York 1965, and the earlier contributions by listed, A. Landy in Rougerie, J. and Haupt, G., “Bibliographie de la Commune de 1871”, in: Le Mouvement Social, No 38 (1962), p. 75.Google Scholar
page 242 note 5 “The ‘Red’ Rising in Paris”, in: The Nation, 03 23, 1871, p. 193.Google Scholar
page 243 note 1 “The Commune and the Labor Question”, in: The Nation, 05 18, 1871, p. 334.Google Scholar
page 243 note 2 “Communist Morality”, in: The Nation, 06 15, 1871, p. 413Google Scholar
page 243 note 3 “The Future of Capital”, in: The Nation, 06 22, 1871, p. 429.Google Scholar
page 244 note 1 “The Massacre in Paris”, in: The Chicago Tribune, 06 22, 1871.Google Scholar
page 244 note 2 “Victor Hugo”, in: The New York Herald, 03 24, 1871.Google Scholar
page 244 note 3 “Progress of the War – Against the Paris Commune”, in: The New York Herald, 04 21, 1871.Google Scholar
page 244 note 4 “The War Against the Commune – Progress of the Siege”, in: The New York Herald, 05 17, 1871.Google Scholar
page 245 note 1 “France and the Movements in Europe – Thiers Can Make Himself the First Man of the Times”, in: The New York Herald, 06 10, 1871.Google Scholar
page 246 note 1 For the Slaughter House Cases see Charles Fairman, American Constitutional Decisions, New York 1950, pp. 306–324.Google Scholar Field's dissent is given on pp. 319–321.
page 246 note 2 Graham, Howard Jay, “Justice Field and the Fourteenth Amendment”, in: Howard Jay Graham, Everyman's Constitution, Madison 1969, p. 115.Google Scholar
page 246 note 3 Illinois, Munn V., 94, United States Supreme Court, 113 (1877).Google Scholar For Justice Field's dissent p. 142.
page 247 note 1 Swisher, Carl B., Field, Stephen J., Craftsman of the Law, Washington, D.C., 1930, p. 429.Google Scholar
page 247 note 2 Graham, op. cit., p. 117.
page 247 note 3 Ibid., 149–150.
page 248 note 1 For American response to the Russian Revolution see Foner, Phillip Sheldon, The Bolshevik Revolution, its impact on American Radicals, Liberals, and Labor, New York 1967Google Scholar, and Christopher Lasch, The American Liberals and the Russian Revolution, New York 1962; and for the Spanish Civil War, Alan Guttman, Wound in the Heart: America and the Spanish Civil War, New York 1962.
page 248 note 2 “Both End and the Middle”, in: The Saturday Evening Post, 11 1, 1919.Google Scholar
page 249 note 1 Rudd, Mark, “Symbols of the Revolution”, in: Up Against the Ivy Wall: A History of the Columbia Crises, edited by Jerry, L. Avorn and Richard Friedman, New York 1968, p. 294.Google Scholar
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