* This document was reproduced and reformatted from the text appearing at the Organization of African Unity (OAU) website (visited February 6, 2001)<http://www.oau-oua.org>.

1 The release of Mrs. Loayza is the first time a state has complied with a judgment of the Court ordering the release of an individual.

2 Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Case of Loayza Tamayo, Interpretation of the Judgment on Reparations, Judgment of June 3, 1998.

3 Among other things, this Resolution invokes as grounds for the alleged “non-enforceability,” issues having to do with exhaustion of domestic remedies; the impossibility of double jeopardy in the Peruvian legal order; the allegation that the judgment of the Inter-American Court “must be adjusted to the constitutional order of the signatory states, or otherwise binding if their respective constitutions provide for the supremacy of the constitutions over treaties or conventions related to matter in this ambit“; the allegation that “the Constitution in force establishes that no authority may void rulings [of the Peruvian courts] that have become res judicata“'; and that “the so-called ‘supervision’ of compliance with judgments, ordered in the ruling of the Inter-American Court… constitutes a power that has not been assigned to it by the instruments to which the Republic of Peru is a signatory, and which, therefore, are unenforceable.“

4 See analysis in Chapter II.

5 Among other considerations, this resolution invokes as the grounds for the alleged “unenforceability” issues relating to the exhaustion of domestic remedies; the resolution of issues not raised before the Commission nor included in the application before the Court; the allegation that the Inter-American Court has “overstepped the bounds of its jurisdiction” for having addressed the issue of the incompatibility of domestic law with the Convention, which it only has jurisdiction to do, according to the State, “by way of consultation, and in the manner of an opinion,” and “exclusively at the initiative of the States parties (Articles 63, 64 of the American Convention), which is not the case in the present matter“; the allegation that “the order to reform legal provisions emanating from the Legislative branch requires a new legal rule, which implies ordering that the members of the Congress vote a certain way” when “the members of Congress represent the Nation and are not subject to an imperative order,” consequently, the Court “cannot order them as to the content or form of their votes, since the members of Congress answer only to their constituents“; the allegation that the judgment of the Court in question seeks to “repudiate the Constitution of Peru and subject it to the American Convention on Human Rights“; the allegation that the “final judgment” of May 3, 1994, “issued by the Special Supreme Military Tribunal had the effect of res judicata … therefore it could not be the subject of a new judgment, for it would be a violation of the rule set forth in the Constitution at Article 139 of the Peruvian Constitution” “and whose realization would constitute a constitutional violation“; the allegation that “the arguments of the Court, on having considered that Military Justice, in the case of judging civilians … does not meet the essential attributes … has not had the essential support, nor sufficient and satisfactory grounding, nor has it displayed a presumed prohibition of Military Justice over civilians in respect of certain issues provided for in the Constitution of Peru, which prohibition is not regulated by the American Convention, and consequently should not be validly invoked to judge a supposed violation of the Convention.“

6 The International Court of Justice, in a recent decision, has observed that “the principle of good faith is a well-established principle of international law. It is set forth in Article 2, paragraph 2, of the Charter of the United Nations; it is also embodied in Article 26 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of 23 May 1969. It was mentioned as early as the beginning of this century in the Arbitral Award of 7 September 1910 in the North Atlantic Fisheries case (United Nations, Reports of International Arbitral Awards, Vol. XI, p. 188). It was moreover upheld in several judgments of the Permanent Court of International Justice (Factory of Chorzow, Merits, Judgment No. 13, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 17, p. 30; Free Zones of Upper Savoy and the District of Gex, Order of 6 December 1930, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 24, p. 12, and 1932, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 46, p. 167). Finally, it was applied by this Court as early as 1952 in the case concerning Rights of Nationals of the United States of America in Morocco (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1952, p. 212), then in the case concerning Fisheries Jurisdiction (Federal Republic of Germany v. Iceland) (Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 18), the Nuclear Tests cases (I.C.J. Reports 1974, pp. 268 and 473), and the case concerning Border and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras) (Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1988, p. 105).” This cite has been transcribed from the case of Cameroon v. Nigeria, Preliminary Objections, 11 June 1998, para. 38.

7 In its Advisory Opinion No. 14, the Court stated: “Pursuant to international law, all obligations imposed by it must be fulfilled in good faith; domestic law may not be invoked to justify nonfulfillment.” OC-14/94, para. 35. The system of interpretation of the Vienna Convention has been used by the Honorable Court in the exercise of both its advisory and contentious jurisdictions. See Inter-American Court of Human Rights, OC-3/83, para. 50; Case of Velásquez Rodríguez, Preliminary Objections, Judgment of January 21, 1987, paras. 44 and 45; Case of Fairén Garbi and Solís Corrales, Preliminary Objections, Judgment of January 21, 1987, paras. 47 and 48.

8 Germán Bidart Campos, “Jerarquía y Prelación de Normas en un Sistema International de Derechos Humanos” in Liber Amicorum: Héctor Fix-Zamudio, 1998, Vol. I, p. 459.

9 Given that the Constitutional Court did not have the necessary quorum (6 of 7) for declaring the law unconstitutional, the three magistrates decided to exercise their own judicial function of “diffuse control” of constitutionality, applying the constitutional rule instead of the new law, which they interpreted as contradictory.

10 See Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Advisory Opinion OC-15/97, supra, Concurring opinion of Judge A. A. Cançado Trindade, para. 7.

11 ICJ, Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, I.C.J. Reports 1984, Separate opinion of Judge Jennings, p. 547 (citing the case Right of passage over Indian Territory, I.C.J. Reports 1957, p. 143).

12 Inter-American Court of Human Rights, The Effect of Reservations on the Entry Into Force of the American Convention on Human Rights (Arts. 74 and 75), Advisory Opinion OC-2/82 of September 24, 1982, Inter-Am.Ct.H.R. (Ser. A) No. 2, para. 29.

13 Id., paras. 29-30, citing the European Commission on Human Rights, Austria v. Italy, App. No. 788/60,4 Eur. Yearbook of H.R. 116, p. 140 (1961); ICJ, Opinion on Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1951 I.C.J. 15); and, with respect to the Vienna Convention, citing, in general, Schwebel, E., “The Law of Treaties and Human Rights, ” 16 Archiv des Volkerrechts 1 (1973)Google Scholar, reprinted in Toward World Order and Human Dignity, p. 262 (W.M. Reisman and B. Weston, directors of the publication, 1976).

14 For example, UN organs, several governments, the European Union, and the European Court of Human Rights.

1 Zinn, Howard, People's History of the United States, 1492-Present (New York: Harper Perennial, 1995 edition).Google Scholar

2 Lindquist, Sven, Exterminate All the Brutes (New York: New Press, 1996).Google Scholar Translated from Swedish by Joan Tate.

3 William Schabas, “The Greatest Crime,” Washington Times, Dec. 7, 1998.

4 “Woman Charged with Rape by Rwanda Genocide Tribunal,” Pan African News Agency, August 13, 1999.

5 Ibid.

6 Adama Dieng, “Views And Suggestions Concerning the 1948 Geneva Convention On Genocide,” paper presented to IPEP, March 1, 2000.

7 Totten, Samuel, et al. (ed.), Century of Genocide: Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views (New York: Garland Publishers, 1997).Google Scholar

8 Hochschild, Adam, ing Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror and Heroism in Colonial Africa (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1998).Google Scholar

1 Howard Adelman, “Genocidists and Saviours in Rwanda,” Books in Canada, March 1999.

2 Uvin.

3 “United Nations Independent Inquiry”, December 1999, 39-40.

4 UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations, Lessons Learned Unit, Comprehensive report on Lessons Learned from UNAMIR [UN Assistance Mission to Rwanda, October 1993-April 1996, December 1996, 3.

5 Ibid., 40.

6 Dallaire and Bruce Poulin, “Rwanda: From Peace Agreement to Genocide,” Canadian Defence Quarterly, 24, no. 3, March 1995.

7 Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict, Preventing Deadly Conflict (New York: Carnegie Corporation, December 1997), 39.

8 Feil, Scott R., “Preventing Genocide: How the Early Use of Force Might Have Succeeded in Rwanda” (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict, 1998).Google Scholar

9 Ibid., 3.

10 Alan Kuperman, “Rwanda in Retrospect: Could the Genocide Have Been Stopped?” Foreign Affairs, January/February 2000, 94-95; Alison Des Forges, “Alas, We Knew,” Kuperman replies in “Shame: Rationalizing Western Apathy on Rwanda,” Foreign Affairs, 79, no. 3, May/June 2000, 141-144.

11 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999,21;” Security Council resolution adjusting UNAMIR's mandate and authorizing a reduction in its strength,” S/RES/912 (1994), 21 April 1994.

12 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999,12.

13 Dallaire and Poulin, op. Cit.

14 Astri Suhrke, “Dilemmas of Protection: The Log of the Kigali Battalion,” in Adelman and Suhrke (eds.), The Path of a Genocide, 267.

15 Des Forges, 618.

16 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 17.

17 Ibid.

18 Des Forges, 629.

19 “Security Council resolution expanding UNAMIR to 5,000 troops and mandating UNAMIR II to provide security to displaced persons, refugees and civilians at risk and to support relief efforts, and imposing an arms embargo on Rwanda,” S/RES/918 (1994), 17 May 1994.

20 James Woods, Frontline interview.

1 Organization of African Unity, “Resolving Conflicts in Africa: Proposal for Action,” (OAU: OAU Press and Information Series 1,1992).

2 OAU Secretary-General, “Report of the Secretary-General on Conflicts in Africa,” 1992,9.

3 “Addis Ababa Declaration,” 11 July 1990, 3.

4 OAU Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa, 1969.

5 Pascal Ngoga, “The Tragic Consequences of the Unresolved Refugee Problem,” IPEP commissioned paper, 1999,25.

6 A knowledgeable observer who met with the Panel but prefers to remain anonymous.

7 OAU, “Background Information,” 5.

8 Ibid., 19.

9 Ibid., 28.

10 “Communiqué issued at the end of a regional summit meeting held in Dar Es Salaam on 6 April 1994 on the Situation Prevailing in Burundi and Rwanda.“

1 Assemblée rationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 25.

2 St-Exupéry, 24.

3 The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, “Remarks by the President to Genocide Survivors, Assistance Workers, and U.S. and Rwanda Officials,” Kigali Airport, Kigali, Rwanda, 25 March 1998 (www.whitehouse.gov/africa/19980325-16872.html)

4 Charles Trueheart, “French Leaders from 1994 Defend Rwanda Policy,” International Herald Tribune, 22 April 1998, 1.

5 “France and Rwanda: Humanitarian?,” The Economist, 25 April 1998, 48; Trueheart, 1.

6 Assemblée nationale de France, Mission d'information commune (Paul Quilès, Président), Enquête sur la tragédie rwandaise (1990-1994), Tome 1 Rapport, Tome 2 Annexes, Tome 3 vols.1-2 Auditions, rapport no. 1271 (France: Assemblée nationale, 15 décembre 1998).

7 Ibid., Tome 1 Rapport, 342.

8 Daily Mail and Guardian (Johannesburg), 17 Dec. 1998.

9 Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 355-359.

10 Ibid., 334.

11 Le Monde (France), 17 December 1998.

12 T.H. Atienga, “France denies responsibility for Rwanda genocide,” Inter Press Service, 16 December 1998.

13 Callamard, “French Policy in Rwanda“; Adelman, “Role of Non-African States“; Asteris Huliaris, “The ‘anglosaxon conspiracy^’: French perceptions of the Great Lakes crisis,” Journal of Modern African Studies, 36, no.4; Daniel Bourmaud, “France in Africa: African Politics and French Foreign Policy,” Issues: A Journal of Opinion, 23, no.2 (1995); Marlise Simons, “France's Rwanda Connections.“ The New York Times, 3 July 1994, 6; Christopher Clapham, Africa and the International System: The Politics of State Survival, Cambridge Studies in International Relations, no.50, (New York, Cambridge University Press, 1996).

14 For example, see Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 3, vol. 1 Auditions, 198 (presentations by Hubert Védrine); and Ibid., Tome 3, vol. 2 Auditions, 223 (presentation by Edith Cresson).

15 A civil cooperation agreement (accord de coopération civile) was signed on 7 December 1962, and a military cooperation agreement (accord de coopération militaire) was signed on 18 July 1975. Ibid., Tome 1 Rapport, 19.

16 Callamard, p. 169.

17 Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 26-27.

18 Ibid., 28.

19 Ibid., Tome 3, vol.1 Auditions, 229.

20 Clapham, “Perils of Peacemaking.“

21 Trueheart, 7.

22 Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 3, vol. 1 Auditions, 368.

23 Telegram from Georges Martres, French Ambassador to Rwanda, dated 27 October 1990. Ibid., Tome 1 Rapport, 135.

24 Ibid., 36.

25 IPEP interview with a knowledgeable observer.

26 Des Forges, 121.

27 Prunier, 176.

28 Ibid.; Des Forges, 121.

29 Adelman, “Role of Non-African States,” 10.

30 Prunier, 147.

31 Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 342.

32 Prunier, 178.

33 Des Forges, interview.

34 Adelman, “Role of Non-African States,” 11.

35 Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 137, 172.

36 Trueheart.

37 Prunier, 106, 111; Des Forges, 117.

38 Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 75.

39 Ibid., 152,163; Prunier 149.

40 Prunier, 110-111; Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 152, 161-163, 172-175.

41 Ogenga Otunnu, “Rwandese Refugees and Immigrants in Uganda,” in Adelman et al. (eds.), Path of a Genocide, 14-15.

42 Rémy Ourdan, “France Exonerates Itself Over Rwanda,” Guardian Weekly (London), 27 December 1998.

43 Millwood, Study 1,41.

44 Simons, 6.

45 Wood, Brian and Peleman, Johan, “The Arms Fixers,” British American Security Council, London, 1999 Google Scholar

46 Braeckman, Colette, Rwanda: Histoire d'un génocide (Paris: Fayard, 1994), 149.Google Scholar

47 Prunier, 113,148-149.

48 “France and Rwanda: humanitarian?,” The Economist, 25 April 1998.

49 Callamard, “French Policy in Rwanda,” 174.

50 Prunier, 110-111; Assemblee nationale, mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 152, 161-163, 172-175.

51 *

52 The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, “Remarks by the President to Genocide Survivors.“

53 Richard N. Haas, “The Squandered Presidency: demanding more from the Commander-in-Chief,” Foreign Affairs, 79, no. 3, May/June 2000.

54 Millwood, Study 2, 36.

55 Des Forges, 176.

56 Human Rights Watch, “Arming Rwanda,” 17.

57 Frontline interview.

58 Herman Cohen, presentation to IPEP panel, 1999.

59 James Woods, Frontline interview, Tony Marley, Political Military Advisor for the U.S. State Department from 1992-95, Frontline interview.

60 James Woods, Frontline interview.

61 Boutros-Ghali, Boutros, Unvanquished: A US-UN Saga (New York: Random House,1999).Google Scholar

62 Ibid.

63 Ibid.

64 James Woods, Frontline interview.

65 Boutros-Ghali, Unvanquished.

66 Tony Marley, Frontline interview.

67 Gourevitch, Philip, We wish to inform you that tomorrow we will be killed with our families. Stories from Rwanda (New York: Fairer Strauss & Giro, 1998), 150.Google Scholar

68 Alan Kuperman in the Washington Post, 24 December 1998.

69 Adelman,” Role of Non-African States”, 1.

70 Ibid., 18-19.

71 Senat de Belgique, rapport fait au nom de la commission d'enquête par MM. Mahoux et Verhofstadt, session de 1997-1998, Commission d'enquête parlementaire concernant les événements du Rwanda, no.1-611/7, annexes no. 1-611/8 a 15, (Belgique: Sénat de Belgique, 6 décembre 1997), 525; Des Forges, 177; Millwood, Study 2,44.

72 Boutros-Ghali, Unvanquished.

73 Ibid.

74 “Triumph of Evil”, the Frontline documentary.

75 Tony Marley, Frontline interview.

76 Ibid.

77 Boutros-Ghali, Unvanquished.

78 Ibid.

79 “Why no Rwanda,” The New Republic editorial, 16 May 1994.

80 African Rights, Death, Despair, 1126.

81 Philip Gourevitch, Frontline interview.

82 American Broadcasting Corporation (ABC), This Week, transcript, 23 January 2000.

1 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999,1.

2 Ibid., 49.

3 Ibid., 28.

4 Ibid., 34.

5 Ibid., 42.

6 Ibid., 26.

7 Ibid.

8 Ibid., 45.

9 Ibid., 47.

10 Ibid.

11 Ibid., 17.

12 A knowledgeable observer who met with the Panel and asked to remain anonymous.

13 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 56.

14 Millwood, Study 2, 27.

15 As related to the Panel by an academic, 3 March 1999.

16 Millwood, Study 2, 36. (from a statement by the Secretary General, S/24688/1993, par. 65)

17 Des Forges, 131.

18 Romeo Dallaire, Gen. & Poulin, Bruce, “Rwanda: From Peace Agreement to Genocide,” Canadian Defence Quarterly, 24, no.3 (March 1995): 8.Google Scholar

19 A knowledgeable observer; General Henry Kwami Anyidoho, Guns Over Kigali: The Rwandese Civil War (Accra, Ghana: Woeli Publishing, 1999): 8.

20 General Dallaire.

21 Edwards, Steven, “Dallaire's Story: UN Failed Rwanda,” National Post (Canada), 17 December 1999.Google ScholarPubMed

22 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 29.

23 General Dallaire.

24 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999.

25 General Dallaire.

26 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 3.

27 Ibid., 4-5.

28 Compare articles Bl, B3, B4 of the Arusha Accords with Articles 3A and 3H of Security Council resolution 872 of 5 October 1993. Des Forges, 142.

29 Ibid.

30 Ibid.

31 Department of Peacekeeping Operations, Lessons Learned Unit, Comprehensive Report on Lessons Learned from UNAMIR, October 1993-April 1996, New York, October 1996, 3.

32 Ibid., 133.

33 It can be found in full on the web site of the 1998 Frontline programme, “The Triumph of Evil“; Philip Gourevitch, “The Genocide Fax,” The New Yorker, 11 May 1998.

34 Col. Luc Marchal, Frontline interview.

35 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 6.

36 Ibid., 31.

37 Bjørn Willum, “Legitimizing Inaction Towards Genocide in Rwanda: A Matter of Misperception?,” Paper presented at the Third International Conference of the Association of Genocide Scholars, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI (USA), 13-15 June 1999, 7-9.

38 A knowledgeable observer who met with the Panel but wishes to remain anonymous.

39 A knowledgeable observer who met with the Panel but wishes to remain anonymous.

40 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 6.

41 Ibid., Annex 1, 2.

42 A knowledgeable observer who met with the Panel but wishes to remain anonymous.

43 Adelman, “Role of Non-African States,” 23.

44 Tony Marley, Frontline interview.

45 A knowledgeable observer who met with the Panel but wishes to remain anonymous.

46 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 7.

47 Col. Luc Marchal, Frontline interview.

48 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 31-32.

49 Ogenga Otunnu, “An Historical Analysis of the Invasion by the Rwanda Patriotic Army (RPA),” in Adelman et al. (eds.), Path of a Genocide, 38.

50 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 8.

51 Ibid.

52 Anyidoho, Guns Over Kigali.

53 Willum, 5.

54 Howard Adelman, “Canadian Policy in Rwanda,” in Adelman et al. (eds.), Path of a Genocide, 198-199.

55 Willy Claes, “Letterdated 14 March 1994 from the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Belgium to the Secretary-General expressing concern that the worsening situation in Rwanda may impede UNAMIR's capacity to fulfil its mandate,” in UN Dept. of Public Information, The United Nations and Rwanda (1993-1996), document 34, 244.

56 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 11.

57 Ibid., Annex 1, 6.

58 As a knowledgeable observer who wishes to remain anonymous told the Panel.

59 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 9.

60 Willum, 5.

61 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, Annex 1,7.

62 UN Security Council, Press release SC/6809-20000224, Security Council expands mission in DRC, unanimously adopting resolution 1291 (2000), 24 February 2000.

63 UN Secretary-General, “Statement on Receiving the Report of the Independent Inquiry into the Actions of the United Nations during the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda,” 16 December 1999.

1 Des Forges, 598.

2 James Woods, Frontline interview.

3 Des Forges, 598.

4 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 14.

5 Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 rapport, 344.

6 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 17.

7 “The Triumph of Evil,” PBS Frontline, USA, 1995; “Rwanda: triumph of a Genocide,” CBC, Prime Time Magazine, Canada, 1994; “Rwanda: the Betrayal,” Channel 4, UK, 1995; “The Bloody Tricolour”, Panorama, BBC, UK, 1995.

8 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 18.

9 Ibid.

10 A knowledgeable observer.

11 Adelman, “Role of Non-African States,” 23.

12 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 16-17; Cynthia McKinney, “Two Families, One Genocide, and the United Nations: Two Families, Victims of Rwanda Genocide, Seek Reparations from the United Nations for UN Complicity in Murders During the 1994 Rwandan Genocide,” Newsletter from U.S. Congresswoman C. McKinney, 15 December 1999.

13 Anyidoho, chapter. 5.

14 James Woods, Frontline interview.

15 Ibid.

16 Cited in US Committee For Refugees, “Rwanda: Genocide and the Continuing Cycle of Violence,” presentation to the US House of Representatives Committee on International relations, Sub-Committee on International Operations and Human Rights, May 5, 1998.

17 Ibid.

18 African Rights, Death, Despair, 1120.

19 Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly Resolution 53/35: The Fall of Srebrenica, 15 November 1999,110-111.

20 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 46.

21 Willum, 10,15.

22 Security Council Document: 49th year, 3377^th meeting, Monday 16 May 1994 (S/PV.3377), 5.

23 African Rights, Death, Despair, 1137.

24 UN Independent Inquiry, Recommendation 12, 51.

25 Michael Barnett, U.S. Mission to the UN 1994, Frontline interview.

26 United Nations Secretary-General, “Report of the Secretary-General on the situation in Rwanda, reporting on the political mission he sent to Rwanda to move the warring parties towards a cease-fire and recommending that the expanded mandate for UNAMIR be authorized for an initial period of six months,” S/1994/640 (31 May 1994), para.5.

27 Ibid., par.43.

28 James Woods, Frontline interview.

29 African Rights, Death, Despair, 1130.

30 General Romeo Dallaire, “The End of Innocence: Rwanda 1994,” in Moore, Jonathan (ed.), Hard Choices: Moral Dilemmas in Humanitarian Intervention (Langham, Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998).Google Scholar

31 A knowledgeable observer.

32 Frontline interview.

33 United Nations Secretary-General, “Statement on Receiving the Report of the Independent Inquiry into the Actions of the United Nations during the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda,” 16 December 1999.

34 “Triumph of Evil,” Frontline, Chronology.

35 Ibid.

36 Iqbal Riza, Frontline interview.

37 Ibid.

38 Tom Longman, “State, Civil Society and Genocide in Rwanda,” in Joseph, Richard (ed.), State, Conflict and Democracy in Africa (Boulder, Colorado: L. Rienner, 1999).Google Scholar

39 Ibrahim Gambari, “Guns over Kigali: A Review Article on the Rwandan Genocide,” West Africa, 19 (October-1 November 1998): 747.

40 Col. Luc Marchal, Frontline interview.

41 Prunier, 107.

42 Colette Braeckman.

43 Sénat de Belgique, “Rapport,” 6 December 1997.

44 Philip Gourevitch, Frontline interview.

45 Des Forges, 620.

46 Ibid., 615.

47 Colette Braeckman interview.

48 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999,43.

49 Des Forges, 618.

50 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 44.

51 Des Forges, 620.

52 Ibid.

53 Adelman, “Role of Non-African States,” 6.

54 “Rwanda: Autopsy of a Genocide,” CBC, Canada, 1994.

55 Des Forges, 177; Millwood, Study 2,44; Sénat de Belgique, “Rapport,” 6 December 1997, 525.

56 Boutros-Ghali, Unvanquished.

57 Lt. Luc Lemaire, Frontline interview.

58 IRIN, Belgian Premier apologizes, 7 April 2000.

59 Gérard Prunier, “Operation Turquoise: A Humanitarian Escape from a Political Dead End,” in Adelman et al. (eds.), Path of a Genocide

60 Prunier, “Operation Turquoise.“

61 Interview with Dr. Bradol in “The Bloody Tricolour,” BBC Panorama, 28 August 1995.

62 Des Forges, 613; Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 268.

63 Callamard, 176.

64 Col. Luc Marchal, interview on BBC Panorama television documentary, “When Good Men do Nothing,” August 1994; Jean de la Gueriviere, “Un officier beige maintient ses déclarations sur l'attitude de la France lors du génocide rwandais,” Le Monde (France), 23 July 1995.

65 Prunier, 281.

66 Des Forges, 668.

67 Adelman, “Role of Non-African States,” 13.

68 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 47.

69 Organisation of African Unity, “The OAU and Rwanda, Background Information,” document presented to IPEP, November 1999, 35-39.

70 African Rights, Death, Despair, 1142.

71 “Not the Ideal Candidate to Intervene,” Le Monde (France), 23 June 1994.

72 Prunier, 287 (note 14).

73 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999,47.

74 Boutros-Ghali, Unvanquished.

75 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999,47.

76 Prunier, 291.

77 OAU, “OAU and Rwanda,” 36.

78 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, Annex 1, 15.

79 Millwood, Study 2, 54-55.

80 Raymond Bonner, “French establish a base in Rwanda to block rebels,” The New York Times, 5 July 1994.

81 Adelman, “Role of Non-African States,” 12; Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 294.

82 African Rights, Death, Despair, 1148-1150.

83 McGreal, Chris, “French compromised by collaboration in Rwanda,” The Guardian (London), 1 July 1994.Google Scholar

84 Ibid.

85 Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 325.

86 Ibid., Tome 2 Annexes, 454.

87 Des Forges, 687.

88 McGreal, Chris, “French accused of protecting killers,” The Guardian (London), 27 August 1994.Google Scholar

89 Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 172.

90 Prunier, 278.

91 Human Rights Watch (Arms Project), “Rearming with impunity: International support for the perpetrators of the Rwandan genocide,” 1995.

92 Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 172.

93 Des Forges, 688.

94 “France intervened in Rwanda to curb Anglo-Saxon axis,” The Times (London), 23 August 1994.

95 Prunier, 337.

96 Huliaris, 595.

97 Prunier, 339.

98 African Rights, Death, Despair, 1154.

99 Prunier, 339.

100 Le Monde (France), 29 December 1994.

101 David Newbury, “Convergent Catastrophes in Central Africa,” Nov. 1996.

102 Bonaventure Rutinwa, “The Aftermath of the Rwanda Genocide in the Great Lakes Region,” IPEP commissioned paper, 1999.

103 Statement of the Central Organ of the OAU Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution, Addis Ababa, April 14, 1994.

104 Press statement of the OAU Secretary-General on the Tragic Situation in Rwanda and on the proposed peace conference in Arusha, Tanzania, April 19, 1994.

105 Letter from the OAU Secretary-General to the Secretary-General of the UN, May 5,1995, CAB/RWANDa/1994.

106 Salim Salim to Boutros-Ghali, 21 April 1994.

107 A knowledgeable observer who met with the Panel but prefers to remain anonymous.

108 OAU, “Background Information,” 35-39.

109 A knowledgeable observer who met with the Panel but prefers to remain anonymous.

1 Prunier, 342.

2 Prunier, 343 footnote 65.

3 Amnesty International, “News Release, AI Index: AFR:47/13/97,” 8 April 1997.

4 Prunier, 343 footnote 65.

5 DesForges, 286, 642, and 768.

6 Ibid., 768.

7 As seen on “Rwanda: the Betrayal,” presented by Lindsey Hilsum, Channel 4 Television, UK, 1995.

8 Daniel Licht, “L'eglise protégé des abbés implique dans les massacres,” Golias, 2 avril 1999.

9 Ibid.

10 Alison DesForges interview; EIU Country Report, “Rwanda”, 4^th Quarter 1999 (Economist Intelligence Unit, 1999), 13; McGreal, Chris, “Bishop's trial puts Church on dock for Rwanda massacre”, Guardian Weekly (London), 26 August-1 September 1999 Google Scholar; Tom Masland, “The Bishop in the Dock”, Newsweek, 27 September 1999.

11 See the ICT Y Statute and ICTR Statute, which specifically states that the mandate of the ICTY would be expanded to include the Court in Arusha. DesForges, 738.

12 Gourevitch, We wish to Inform You, 253.

13 DesForges, 762.

14 Preamble to the ICTR Statute.

15 DesForges, 741.

16 Amnesty International, “International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: Trials and Tribulations”, April 1998.

17 Scheffer, David J., US Policy on International criminal Tribunals, address at Washington College of Law, American University, Washington, DC, March 31, 1998, 4.Google Scholar

18 Taylor, Telford, The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials: A Personal Memoir (London: Bloomsbury Publishing Ltd., 1993)Google Scholar, Appendix.

19 See ICTR Fact Sheet No.l: The Tribunal at a Glance, found at website:. www.ictr.org/English/factsheets.htm.

20 Ibid.

21 Ibid.

22 ICTR, Judgement 96-4-T.

23 DesForges, 744.

24 Pan African News Agency, “Woman Charged with Rape by Rwanda Genocide Tribunal,” 13 August 1999.

25 Reyntjens, Filip, “Talking or Fighting: Political Evolution in Rwanda and Burundi, 1998-1999,” Current Affairs, 21(1999): 12–13.Google Scholar

26 Bagosora, Theoneste, L'assassinat du Président Habyarimana ou I'ultime opération du Tutsi pour sa reconquête du pouvoirpar la force au Rwanda (Yaounde, Cameroon, 1995).Google Scholar

27 ICTR, “The Prosecutor versus Jean Kambanda”, 97-23-S, 4 September 1998.

28 Foundation Hirondelle, “Former Rwandan Militia Leader Gets Life Sentence for Genocide,” 6 December 1999.

29 “Rutaganda convicted of genocide and sentenced to life imprisonment”, ICTR/TNFO 9-2-216en, Arusha, 6 December 1999.

30 Foundation Hirondelle, “Rutaganda's Lawyer to Appeal Rwanda Tribunal Verdict,” 6 December 1999.

31 Vandeginste, 7.

32 “Sealed pact to be disclosed after Prime Minister is sentenced, Registry says”, FH Wire Service, 1 September 1998.

33 Ibid.

34 Ibid.

35 ICTR, “Notice of Appeal”, Case 97-23-S, 7 September 1998.

36 “Former Rwandan Prime Minister sentenced to life for genocide insists upon the lawyer of his choice”, FH Wire Service, 14 October 1998.

37 Ibid.

38 Foundation Hirondelle, “Former Rwandan Prime Minister Pleads Guilty Before UN Court, Background,” 21 August 1998.

39 Interviews with Carol Off, a Canadian journalist soon to publish a book about Arusha; “Former Prime Minister wants to retract guilty plea”, FH Wire Service, 6 January 2000; “Defence Attorneys critical of Jean Kambanda's guilty plea before the ICTR”, Press release, 4 May 1998.

40 Vandeginste, 9.

41 See Amnesty International, “Rwanda: The hidden violence: “disappearances” and killings continue,” 23 June 1998, AI Index: AFR47/23/98.

42 Amnesty International, “News Release, Ai Index: AFR:47/13/97,” 8 April 1997.

43 The new law was passed 30 August 1996. DesForges, 750.

44 Organic Law No. 8/96, 30 August 1996. Published in the Gazette of the Republic of Rwanda, 35^th year, no.17, 1 September 1996.

45 Report prepared for IPEP by the Rwanda National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, “Some efforts made by the Government to build a new society based on national unity and reconciliation,” February 2000.

46 DesForges, 753: also see Reyntjens, “Talking or Fighting?,” 11.

47 National Film Board of Canada, “Chronicle of a genocide foretold”, The Rwanda Series, vol.3, 1996.

48 Amnesty International, Rwanda: the Troubled Course of Justice, 26 April 2000.

49 Vandeginste, 11.

50 Reyntjens, “Talking or Fighting?” 11.

51 Reyntjens, “Talking or Fighting” ,11.

52 DesForges, 757.

53 DesForges, 754.

54 Ibid.

55 DesForges, 761.

56 DesForges, 757; also see Avocats Sans Frontières, “Justice for All in Rwanda, Annual Report 1998,” to be found at website: http://www.asf.be/frans/archives/e_rw anda98.htm.

57 Vandeginste, 14.

58 Ibid., 11-12.

59 DesForges, 750.

60 Ibid., 761.

61 Ibid.

62 See John Pendergast and David Smock, “Postgenocidal Reconstruction: Building Peace in Rwanda and Burundi,” Special Report for the United States Institute of Peace, Washington, DC, September 15, 1999, 17.

63 Vandeginste, 14-16.

64 Amnesty International, Rwanda: the Troubled Course of Justice, 26 April 2000.

65 Vandeginste, 28.

66 Ibid.

67 Ibid., 15.

68 A knowledgeable observer.

69 Pomfret, John, “Rwandans led revolt in Congo; Defence Minister says arms, troops, supplied for anti-Mobutu drive,” Washington Post, 9 July 1997.Google Scholar

70 Tillou, Susan Lynne, UN Transitional Administration in East Timor, “The Path to justice in East Timor,” Toronto Star,Maich 16,2000.Google Scholar

71 Meredith, Martin, Coming to terms: South Africa's search for truth (New York: Public Affairs, 1999).Google Scholar

72 Tina Rosenberg, “Afterword: Confronting the painful past,” in Ibid., ix.

73 Meredith, 318-319.

74 Mahmood Mamdani, “Reconciliation without Justice,” Southern African Review of Books, (Nov-Dec 1996): 3-5.

75 Meredith, 112, 318, 319.

76 Ibid., 321.

77 Tony Waters, “Conventional wisdom and Rwanda's genocide: An opinion”, African Studies Quarterly, taken from “Relief Web”, 9 December 1997,4.

78 Mamdani, Mahmood, “From conquest to consent on the basis of state formation: Reflections on Rwanda”, New Left Review, 216 (1996): 3–36.Google Scholar

79 Ibid.

1 OAU, “Background Information,” 42.

2 Ibid., 44.

3 Ibid.

4 Pomfret, John, “Rwandans Led Revolt in Congo; Defense Minister Says Arms, Troops, supplied for anti-Mobutu Drive,” Washington Post, 9 July 1997.Google Scholar

5 OAU, “Background Information,” 45-49.

6 A knowledgeable observer who met with the Panel but prefers to remain anonymous.

7 OAU First Ministerial Conference on Human rights in Africa, Grand Bay (Mauritius) Declaration and Plan of Action, April 1999, CONF/HRA/DECL (I).

8 General Dallaire meeting with the Panel.

9 OAU document: Draft Report — OAU/CHST/CO/RPT (II).

10 Ibid.

11 OAU, Declaration of the Assembly of Heads of State and Government on the Establishment, within the OAU, of a Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution.

12 International Institute for Strategic Studies, “The Military Balance 1999/2000. Country by Country Analysis,” 1999.

13 Bonaventure Rutinwa, seminar with IPEP Chairman Masire and IPEP Secretariat, July 1999.

14 International Institute for Strategic Studies.

15 Amare Tekle, “The OAU: Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution,” in Adelman et al. (eds.), Path of a Genocide, 128-129.

16 Alex de Waal (ed.), “The Persistence of War in Africa” and “Structures for Regional Peace and Security,” papers prepared for the Conference on Humanitarian and Political Challenges in Africa, Kigali (Rwanda), 12-14 October 1999.